Chapter 1

Introduction to Heat Transfer

http://www.chemeng.queensu.ca/courses/CHEE318/lectures/

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 Introduction
Thermodynamics:
 Energy can be transferred between a system and its
surroundings.
 A system interacts with its surroundings by exchanging work
and heat
 Deals with equilibrium states
 Does not give information about:
– Rates at which energy is transferred
– Mechanisms through with energy is transferred
In this chapter we will learn:
 What is heat transfer
 How is heat transferred
 Relevance and importance

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 Definitions
• Heat transfer or Heat is thermal energy transfer that is
induced by a temperature difference (or gradient)

Modes of heat transfer

 Conduction heat transfer : Occurs when a temperature
gradient exists through a solid or a stationary fluid (liquid or
gas).
 Convection heat transfer: Occurs within a moving fluid, or
between a solid surface and a moving fluid, when they are
at different temperatures
 Thermal radiation: All surfaces at finite temperature emit
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Heat transfer
between two surfaces (that are not in contact), often in the
absence of an intervening medium.
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Example: Design of a container
A closed container filled with hot coffee is in a room whose air
and walls are at a fixed temperature. Identify all heat transfer
processes that contribute to cooling of the coffee. Comment on
features that would contribute to a superior container design.

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 1. Conduction
Transfer of energy from the more energetic to less energetic
particles of a substance by collisions between atoms and/or
molecules.
 Atomic and molecular activity – random molecular motion (diffusion)
T1
T1>T2

xo qx”

T2
x T2

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 1. Conduction
Consider a brick wall, of thickness L=0.3 m which in a cold winter day
is exposed to a constant inside temperature, T1=20°C and a constant
outside temperature, T2= -20°C.
 Under steady-state conditions
the temperature varies linearly
Wall Area, A as a function of x.
T1=20° qx”  The rate of conductive heat
C transfer in the x-direction
depends on
T T2= -20°C
T1  T2
q"x 
x L=0.3 m L

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 1. Conduction
• The proportionality constant is a transport property, known as thermal
conductivity k (units W/m.K)
T1  T2 T
q"x k k
L L
• For the brick wall, k=0.72 W/m.K (assumed constant), therefore
qx”= 96 W/m2
 How would this value change if instead of the brick wall we had a
piece of polyurethane insulating foam of the same dimensions?
(k=0.026 W/m.K)
 qx” is the heat flux (units W/m2 or (J/s)/m2), which is the heat transfer
rate in the x-direction per unit area perpendicular to the direction of
transfer.
 The heat rate, qx (units W=J/s) through a plane wall of area A is the
product of the flux and the area: qx= qx”. A
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 1. Conduction
• In the general case the rate of heat transfer in the x-direction is
expressed in terms of the Fourier law:

dT T1(high)
q"x  k qx”
dx
• Minus sign because heat flows from T2 (low)
high to low T
 For a linear profile x1 x2
x
dT (T2  T1 )
 0
dx ( x2  x1 )

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 2. Convection
Energy transfer by random molecular motion (as in
conduction) plus bulk (macroscopic) motion of the fluid.
– Convection: transport by random motion of molecules and by bulk
motion of fluid.
– Advection: transport due solely to bulk fluid motion.

 Forced convection: Caused by external means

 Natural (free) convection: flow induced by buoyancy forces, arising
from density differences arising from temperature variations in the fluid
The above cases involve sensible heat (internal energy) of the fluid
 Latent heat exchange is associated with phase changes 
boiling and condensation.
 Hydrodynamic or velocity and Thermal boundary layers

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 2. Convection
Air at 20°C blows over a hot plate, which is maintained at a
temperature Ts=300°C and has dimensions of 20x40 cm.

T  20 C
Air
q”
TS  300 C

The convective heat flux is proportional to

q"x  TS  T

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 2. Convection
• The proportionality constant is the convection heat transfer coefficient,
h (W/m2.K)

q"x  h(TS  T ) Newton’s law of Cooling

• For air h=25 W/m2.K, therefore the

heat flux is qx”= 7,000 W/m2
 How would this value change if instead
of blowing air we had still air (h=5
W/m2.K) or flowing water (h=50
W/m2.K)
• The heat rate, is qx= qx”. A = qx”. (0.2
x 0.4) = 560 W.
• The heat transfer coefficient depends
on surface geometry, nature of the fluid
motion, as well as fluid properties.

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 3. Radiation
 Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter
 Energy is transported by electromagnetic waves (or photons).
 Can occur from solid surfaces, liquids and gases.
 Does not require presence of a medium

Surroundings at Tsur
 Emissive power E is the
radiation emitted by the
surface
"
qincident  G qemitted
"
E  Irradiation G is the rate of
incident radiation per unit
area of the surface,
originating from its
surroundings

Surface at Ts
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 3. Radiation
• For an ideal radiator, or blackbody:


qemitted  Eb  sTs4 Stefan-Boltzmann law
where Ts is the absolute temperature of the surface (K) and s is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, (s = 5.67x10-8 W/m2.K4)
• For a real surface:
"
qemitted  E  esTs4 e is the emissivity 0  e 1
• The irradiation G, originating from the surroundings is:

"
qincident  G  sTsur
4  is the absorptivity 0  a 1
For a “grey” surface, =e

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 3. Radiation
• The net radiation heat transfer from the surface, per unit area is

• The net radiation heat exchange can be also expressed in the

form:

qrad  hr A(Ts  Tsur ) where hr  es(Ts  Tsur )(Ts2  Tsur

2
)

• The net heat exchange from the surface expressed in the

form:

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Thermal Resistance Concept

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Satellites and spacecrafts are exposed to
extremely high radiant energy from the sun.
Propose a method to dissipate the heat, so that
the surface temperature of a spacecraft in orbit
can be maintained to 300 K.

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 Conservation of Energy
Surroundings, S

-Accumulation
Control Volume (Storage) E st
(CV) Addition -Generation E g
Loss
through inlet through outlet
Boundary, B
(Control Surface, CS) E in E out

   dEst 
• Energy conservation on a rate basis: Ein  Eg  Eout   Est
dt
Units W=J/s

 Inflow and outflow are surface phenomena

 Generation and accumulation are volumetric phenomena

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 Steady-Flow Energy Equation
• For an open system mass flow provides for the transport of internal,
kinetic and potential energy into and out of the system
• The work term is devided in two contributions: Flow work, associated
to pressure forces (=pu, where u is the specific volume) and work
done by the system.

 V2   V2 
m i  u  pu   g z   m out  u  pu   g z  
 2 i  2 out
 q  W  0

Recall: m  VAc Mass flow rate (kg/s)

 m
  VAc  Volumetric flow rate (m3/s)

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Example
In an orbiting space station, an electronic package is housed in a
compartment having a surface area As=1 m2, which is exposed to space.
Under normal operating conditions, the electronics dissipate 1kW, all of
which must be transferred from the exposed surface to space.
(a) If the surface emissivity is 1.0 and the surface is not exposed to the
sun, what is its steady-state temperature?
(b) If the surface is exposed to a solar flux of 750 W/m2 and its absorptivity
to solar radiation is 0.25, what is its steady-state temperature?

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 Surface Energy Balance
For a control surface:

qrad”
qcond”
T1 E in  E out  0
or
qconv”
"
qcond  qconv
"
 qrad
"
0
T2
T
T
x

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 Example
The roof of a car in a parking lot absorbs a solar radiant flux of 800
W/m2, while the underside is perfectly insulated. The convection
coefficient between the roof and the ambient air is 12 W/m2.K.
a) Neglecting radiation exchange with the surroundings, calculate the
temperature of the roof under steady-state conditions, if the ambient
air temperature is 20°C.
b) For the same ambient air temperature, calculate the temperature of
the roof it its surface emissivity is 0.8

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Thank you for your kind attention and participation

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