Compiled by Rabin

The coefficient of friction for the clutch facing is approximately 0.4.

 The braking control type traction control system (TCS) generally operates in the speed range of less than 40 km/h.
The component that connects the steering rack to the knuckles is tie rod. (@SRK-TRp)
The cetane number of a Diesel fuel is a measure of delay period.
The brake warning light warns the driver of failure of the primary or secondary circuit of hydraulic system.
The characteristic that is enhanced by the honing (@pneumonic- honing sound similar to horny  ejaculation
of semen, a lubricant) of cylinder sleeves inner surface is lubrication performance.
The ‘crescent-shaped cavity’ on the piston head top surface is called as valve recess.
The size of engine cylinder is referred in terms of its bore and stroke.
The main merit of a multi-cylinder type cylinder sleeve is smaller engine dimension.
1. Jerky torque from only one power stroke per 1. More power strokes per revolution giving
two revolutions smooth torque output,
2. Heavy flywheel required 2. Lighter flywheel allowing quicker acceleration.
3. Large piston and valves present considerable 3. Small valves and pistons enable cooling easier.
cooling difficulties 4. More frequent and smaller pulsations make
4. Large exhaust pulsations cause difficulty in easier silencing
silencing 5. Engine is much more compact.
5. The engine would be very tall and difficult to 6. Engine would weight much lesser than the
accommodate under the bonnet. single-cylinder engine.
6. Engine would be vary heavy. 7. Easy to balance.
7. The heavy piston poses difficulty in balancing. 8. Could be run at much higher speed.
8. Must run at low-speeds
Steering rack Tie rod

Knuckles
Time interval between the start of injection and the start of combustion is the ignition delay time. Theoretically
combustion should start as soon as Injection of fuel starts. There are two major factors which delays combustion in
CI engine.

1) physical delay , wherein atomization, vaporization and mixing of air fuel occurs.

2) chemical delay , attributed to pre-combustion reactions.

If there is more ignition delay then engine is more prone to knocking.

The primary reason for sleeving an engine to either repair
a cylinder bore or protect it from damage in the first
place. Sleeves can also be used to restore a particular
bore size if a cylinder has to be “bored out” to repair a
cracked or otherwise damaged engine.
A dry sleeve does not contact the coolant. Rather, it is
installed into the wall of the cooling jacket in the cylinder
block. By contrast, in a wet sleeve coolant comes in direct
contact with the sleeve. They lack structural support . Due
to which wet sleeves are thicker than dry sleeves.
Wet sleeves often have a cooling water gap between the
engine block and liner. They also can be manufactured to
incorporate cooling passages. Sleeves with cooling
passages can also be known as water-jacket sleeves.
Due to being in direct contact with the coolant, wet
sleeved cylinders have better cooling and a more even
temperature distribution, but this design makes the
engine as a whole less rigid.
Cast iron is the best suited liner material for aluminium cylinders (@अलुमिमियि मिमलन्डर casting प्रमियाबाट बन्छ | )
.
A four-cylinder engine has a capacity of 2.4 litres. The swept volume of one cylinder is 2.4/4 = 0.6 litres. LOL
The function of a radiator fan in the cooling system is that it blows air through the radiator when necessary.
The heat transfer from coolant to air in the radiator of an automobile engine takes place by convection and
radiation.
The component in the radiator of an automobile that increases the boiling point of water is pressure cap.
The purpose of a thermostat in an engine cooling system is to allow the engine to warm up quickly.
The temperature indicating instrument in vehicles indicates the temperature of jacket cooling water.
The main function of intake manifold is that it distributes intake air equally to the cylinders.
The number of exhaust manifolds in a V-6 engine are two.
Resonator is a sort of an echo chamber for your car’s exhaust. The resonator doesn’t just remove sound, it changes
it. The main function of a resonator is that it reduces the intake air noise .
A radiator is a type of heat exchanger. It is designed to transfer heat from the hot coolant that flows through it to
the air blown through it by the fan.
Most modern cars use aluminum radiators. These radiators are made by brazing thin aluminum fins to flattened
aluminum tubes. The coolant flows from the inlet to the outlet through many tubes mounted in a parallel
arrangement. The fins conduct the heat from the tubes and transfer it to the air flowing through the radiator.
Any liquid-cooled car engine has a small device called the thermostat that sits between the engine and the radiator.
Its job is to block the flow of coolant to the radiator until the engine has warmed up.
When the engine is cold, no coolant flows through the engine. Once the engine reaches its operating temperature
(generally about 200 degrees F, 95 degrees C), the thermostat opens.
By letting the engine warm up as quickly as possible, the thermostat reduces engine wear, deposits and emissions.
When a vehicle without traction control attempts to accelerate on a slippery surface like ice, snow, or loose gravel,
the wheels are liable to slip.
The result of wheel slip is that the tires spin quickly on the surface of the road without gaining any actual grip, so
the vehicle does not accelerate.
Traction control activates when it senses that the wheels may slip, helping drivers make the most of the traction that
is available on the road surface.
Traction control is an active vehicle safety feature designed to help vehicles make effective use of all
the traction available on the road when accelerating on low-friction road surfaces.
Explanation-
The Air Drag Resistance force acting on a body is given by:-

F=0.5*(Density of air)*(Effective Frontal Area)*(Velocity)2.

A compression ring is the piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the piston head. The compression ring
seals the combustion chamber from any leakage during the combustion process.
A wiper ring is the piston ring with a tapered face located in the ring groove between the compression ring and the
oil ring. The wiper ring is used to further seal the combustion chamber and to wipe the cylinder wall clean of excess
oil. Combustion gases that pass by the compression ring are stopped by the wiper ring.
An oil ring is the piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the crankcase. The oil ring is used to wipe excess
oil from the cylinder wall during piston movement. Excess oil is returned through ring openings to the oil reservoir
in the engine block. Two-stroke cycle engines do not require oil rings because lubrication is supplied by mixing oil
in the gasoline, and an oil reservoir is not required.
@ComWade Oli
 A frame is the skeleton of a car without the mountings, whereas a chassis is a mounted frame. Body is a super
structure of the vehicle.

Frame is the foundation for carrying the engine, transmission system & steering system by means of spring , axle ,
rubber pads etc. The frame are made of box , tubular channels or U-shaped section , welded or riveted together.
When engine , transmission system , steering & wheels are fitted on the frame , the assembly known as the “chassis”.
Chassis & body makes the complete vehicle.
ADVANTAGE OF FRAMELESS CONSTRUCTURE
* light in weight and hence fuel efficient.
* manufacturing cost is less.
* safe for the passenger during collision , since the body crumbles thereby absorbing the shock due to impact.
* more stable automobile can be made because of the lower body construction

 DISADVANTAGE OF FRAME LESS CONSTRUCTION

* less strength and durability.
* cost of repair is high
* economical only if adopted in mass production
* car without roof are difficult to design.
As the speed increases, more and more fuel is added to the combustion chamber making the explosions
stronger and thus the torque produced also increases. It reaches a maximum value at a particular speed based
on the engine’s design and requirements. Like A tractor or a truck will be designed to produce maximum
torque at low RPMs for hauling whereas a car would produce maximum torque at a higher RPM to allow
functioning over a wider speed range.
The key to understand the torque curve is the parameter called Volumetric Efficiency (VE) of the engine. If
we assume a particular temperature, volumetric efficiency can also be taken as a ratio of mass of air drawn
into the engine vs. the theoretical mass-draw capacity of the engine. Torque and Volumetric efficiency are
closely linked. This is obvious because generating torque needs more fuel and fuel needs air to burn and the
volume/mass of air drawn is linked to Volumetric efficiency.
At the point of maximum torque, the engine’s volumetric efficiency is also the highest meaning that the
engine is sucking in the maximum mass or volume of air (at a given temperature) it possibly can.
After this point in the RPM band, the torque reduces due to the air flow losses in the valves and mechanical
losses which dominate at higher speeds. These factors reduce the volumetric efficiency and thereby the
torque.
However, the power continues to increase as it is a product of speed and torque. But you can notice that the
rate of increase of power (slope) is slower past the max torque point. At one point closer to the engine’s upper
RPM limit, the power peaks and starts to reduce as the rate of fall in torque is greater than the rate of increase
in RPM.
Q. A petrol engine of a car develops 125 N-m torque at 2700 RPM. The car is driven in second gear having gear ratio
of 1.75. The final drive ratio is 4.11. If the overall transmission efficiency is 90%, then find the torque available at the
driving wheels.

Solution
T = 1.75 × 4.11 × 90/100 × 125,
T = 809.1 Nm (Ans)
The three basic cylinder arrangements for automotive engines are
inline, V and opposed. (@ VinO)
Inline engine advantages:
Simplicity - there is only one bank of cylinders and one head. Block castings are simple and easy to make. Also,
OHC engines only need one (SOHC) or two (DOHC) cams. And there is also only one head gasket to worry about.
Intake and exhaust systems are considerably simpler.
Reliability - In applications where reliability is paramount (think diesels used in heavy trucks and marine
applications), inline engines rule.
Cost - Fewer parts cost less, even if those parts may be larger (i.e., one head with four cylinders is cheaper than two
heads with two apiece).
Ease of maintenance - Everything is easily accessed, at least compared to vee and flat designs.
Inline engines are narrow, which makes the common I4 well suited to transverse FWD cars.
The inline 6 is exceptionally well balanced
Very important - For the same maximum pressure
and temperature, ƞotto < ƞdiesel (@ p,t =same, diesel
ƞ)
In both the cycles, maximum temperature occurs at the end of compression i.e., the state after compression will be
same for both the cycles.
In the figure processes 1-2'-3-4-1 is the p-v diagram for Otto cycle, where as processes 1-2-3-4-1 represents diesel
cycle and in both the cycles maximum temperature and pressure occurs at state 3, hence both have same maximum
temperature and pressure.
From the diagrams it has been seen that heat rejection is same for both the cycles and equal to Q4-1. Whereas, heat
input in diesel cycle is Q2-3 and in Otto cycle it is Q2'-3.
ƞOtto = 1 - (Q4-1 /Q2'-3) ƞdiesel = 1 - (Q4-1 /Q2-3)
From the T-s diagram, we can say area A-2-3-B represents heat transfer during heating in diesel cycle or Q2-3 and
area A-2'-3-B represents heat transfer during heating in Otto cycle or Q2'-3. As the area A-2-3-B is larger than area
A-2'-3-B, we can conclude,Q2-3 > Q2'-3
Therefore, (Q4-1 /Q2'-3) > (Q4-1 /Q2-3)
or, 1 - (Q4-1 /Q2'-3) < 1 - (Q4-1 /Q2-3)
or, ƞotto < ƞdiesel
The timing belt is attached to the camshaft pulley and timing belt drive pulley.
The motion of the cam is transferred to the valves through rocker arm.

Valve overlap (the time during which intake and exhaust valves are both open) must be shorter for a
petrol/gasoline engine because the engine is drawing in fuel as well as air through the intake. If both valves are
open, then raw fuel is being sent out the exhaust, which is wasteful Because a diesel engine only ingests air, rather
than an air/fuel mixture, the valves can have more overlap without the concern of raw fuel flowing out the exhaust.
The valve overlap in four stroke petrol engines is approximately 30 degrees. ( Hint - As Roman Numerals the
number 30 is XXX )
The camshaft of a four stroke Diesel engine running at 1000 rpm will run at 500 rpm.
The exhaust gas from petrol engine contains petrol vapour, water vapour and carbon monoxide.
The ease with which petrol vaporizes is called its volatility.
Iso-octane is 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane or C8H18 (@2day, 2morrow and 4ver The Motion Picture )
A petrol that detonates easily is called is low octane petrol.
The natural gas is compressed in a CNG cylinder at a pressure of 200bar. (@200 is a harshad number )
The specific gravity of petrol is about 0.75 while that of diesel is about 0.85.
Diesel is generally simpler to refine from petroleum than gasoline, and contains hydrocarbons having a boiling
point in the range of 180–360 °C. (@Straight line or circle)
Generally, diesel engines operate well with a Cetane Number from 48 to 50. Fuels with lower cetane number have
longer ignition delays, requiring more time for the fuel combustion process to be completed.
The Self Ignition Temperature of Diesel is 210°C (CCX)and that of Petrol varies from 247°C to 280°C.
In case of a Diesel car, the pressure at the end of compression is of the order of 45 bar (0+1+2+… ….+9=45).
The typical firing order of Inline four cylinder engine is 1-3-4-2. For opposed IC engine, it is 1-4-3-2.
The calorific value of diesel is about 42.5 MJ/kg while that of petrol is 42.7 to 43.5MJ/kg. However, diesel fuel
is denser than petrol and contains about 15% more energy by volume (roughly 36.9 MJ/litre compared to 33.7
MJ/litre).
The connecting rod lower end is connected to the relevant journal of crankshaft.
The fuel that detonates easily is n-heptanes.
The auto ignition in spark ignition engine means ignition of charge before passage of flame fronts.
Rocker arm – It is an oscillating
lever that conveys radial movement
from the cam lobe
into linear movement at the poppet
valve to open it.
If the valve clearances are excessively large, the problem that can arise is incomplete valve closure.
The valve tappet clearance is measured by feeler gauge.
The condition that results in large quantities of HC emission is incomplete combustion while the condition that
results in large quantities of CO emission is insufficient air during combustion(यहााँ काबोि डाइअक्साइड हुि पिे मियो
तर भएि | कारण के होला?) .
The oxygen sensor is positioned in the exhaust pipe and can detect rich and lean mixtures (air fuel ratio). The
mechanism in most sensors involves a chemical reaction that generates a voltage. The engine's computer looks at
the voltage to determine if the mixture is rich or lean, and adjusts the amount of fuel entering the engine
accordingly.
 It turns out that there is a particular ratio of air and gasoline that is "perfect," and that ratio is 14.7:1 ∼ 15:1.
(ALT+8764 ∼) (@िम्बर अफ प्लेयर इि रग्बी )
The function of positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) system is that it returns blow by gases from the crankcase
to the intake system.
If the level of tension in the belt is too high, it can result in a loss of power or in bending of the rotating shaft or
crankshaft.
 Certain amount of that mixture of air and gasoline is pulled down by the piston and slips through the piston rings
into the crankcase.
This escaping gas is called ‘blow-by’ and it's unavoidable. It's also undesirable because the unburned gasoline in it
can gunk up the system and produce problems in the crankcase.
Positive crankcase ventilation involves recycling these gases through a valve (called, appropriately, the PCV valve)
to the intake manifold, where they're pumped back into the cylinders for another shot at combustion.
It isn't always desirable to have these gases in the cylinders because they tend to be mostly air and can make the
gas-air mixture in the cylinders a little too lean.
So the blow-by gases should only be recycled when the car is traveling at slow speeds or idling.
Fortunately, when the engine is idling the air pressure in the intake manifold is lower than the air pressure in the
crankcase, and it's this lower pressure (which sometimes approaches pure vacuum) that sucks the blow-by gases
through the PCV valve and back into the intake.
When the engine speeds up, the air pressure in the intake manifold increases and the suction slows down, reducing
the amount of blow-by gas recycled to the cylinders. This is good, because the blow-by gases aren't needed when
the engine speeds up.
The function of a governor in automobiles is to maintain constant engine speed.
The knocking in C. I. engines may be controlled by ‘decreasing ignition lag’. The shorter the ignition lag, the
lesser is the tendency to knock.
The best fuels for compression ignition engines are naphthalene. NO kidding !!!
The indicated power of a four-stroke engine (in watts) is equal to (where P = Mean effective pressure in N/m2, L =
Length of stroke in metres, A = Cross-sectional area of the piston in m2, and N = Speed of the engine in revolutions
per second (r.p.s) is P.L.A.N/2
Highest useful compression ratio (HUCR) is the highest compression ratio at which the fuel can be used in a test
engine without knocking.
The air gap between the central electrode and ground (or side) electrode of a spark plug is around 1mm.
If the spark plug deposit indicates black coating of soot, it indicates that the engine has been generally operating on
too rich mixture. मकिभिे जब हावा र इन्धिको mixture िा इन्धि is more in comparison to air (जिलाई rich mixture
भमिन्छ ) इन्धि पूणण रुपले बल्ि पाउं दैि जिले गदाण black coating deposit स्पाकण प्लगिा जम्छ |
In a petrol engine, the high voltage for spark plug is in the order of 22 kV.
Engine misfiring is likely to result from spark plug gap too wide. May be because the spark generated cannot be
effective in producing effective combustion.
The forced-fed lubrication system means that the oil is delivered to the engine by the pressure created by the oil
pump.
The engine oil is stored in oil pan when the engine is not running.
 The component of the oil filter that prevents the passage of metal particles and sludge is element (aka filter
element).
Oil pump are driven by different part either its crank or cam design by the manufacture.
Most of manufacture take option of crankshaft drive cause its reduction and weight.
And most of oil pressure required for the crankshaft. Oil pump is driven by crankshaft directly.
The ignition in a spark ignition engine takes place when the piston is approaching the T.D.C. position on its
compression stroke .
The function of a governor in automobiles is to limit the vehicle speed.
The engine misfiring means that a car's engine skips over one of the processes of its combustion cycle.
This generally causes the engine to run rough, jerk, or buck. It also causes the engine to run inefficiently.
There are several types of engine misfires. Some of the common occurrences include lean misfires, ignition
misfires, and mechanical misfires.
Lean misfire refers to an engine misfiring because the air-fuel ratio is not properly balanced.
Ignition misfires occur when either the spark plug, wire, distributor, or ignition coil fail, causing an engine misfire
on the specific cylinder.
The lubrication oil flow in an engine is in the order as oil strainer  oil pump  relief valve
 oil filter  cylinder block  cylinder head  oil pan.


Relief
Valve
The main function of an exhaust muffler is the reduction of exhaust noise.
The main distinction is that a muffler is designed to muffle the overall volume across all RPMs, whereas a
resonator is designed to eliminate unwanted resonance or noise at a particular RPM, also known as exhaust drone.
The most effective method of controlling S.I. engine exhaust emission is by using catalytic converter.
The fuel pump in the programmed fuel injection (PFI) system is located inside the tank.
The fuel pump of a programmed fuel injection (PFI) system operate for ‘two seconds’ when the ignition is turned to
the start position to pressurise the fuel system before the engine is started.
The starting system includes battery (source of electric power), starter motor ( to rotate the Flywheel ) and ignition
switch ( to on/off the circuit).
 The starter motor is driven by gear drive.
The ignition coil is used to step up the voltage.
 The main task of a battery in automobiles is to supply a large amount of power to turn the starter motor when the
engine is being started. (KHURMI BOOK)
How many cells are used in a 12 volt car battery ? Answer – 6 cells.
The job of the catalytic converter is to convert harmful pollutants into less harmful emissions before they ever
leave the car's exhaust system.
Carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons or volatile organic compounds (VOCs are a major component of smog
produced mostly from evaporated, unburned fuel) and Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2, together called NOx, are a
contributor to smog and acid rain, which also causes irritation to human mucus membranes)
 Catalysts participate in the reactions, but are neither reactants nor products of the reaction they catalyse.
In the catalytic converter, there are two different types of catalyst at work, a reduction catalyst (1st stage) and
an oxidation catalyst (2nd stage). Both types consist of a ceramic structure coated with a metal catalyst, usually
platinum, rhodium and/or palladium.
The idea is to create a structure that exposes the maximum surface area of catalyst to the exhaust stream, while also
minimizing the amount of catalyst required, as the materials are extremely expensive. Some of the newest
converters have even started to use gold mixed with the more traditional catalysts. Gold is cheaper than the other
materials and could increase oxidation, the chemical reaction that reduces pollutants, by up to 40 percent.
There are two main types of structures used in catalytic converters -- honeycomb and ceramic beads. Most cars
today use a honeycomb structure.
A Bendix drive is a type of engagement mechanism used in starter motors of internal combustion engines.
The device allows the pinion gear of the starter motor to engage or disengage the flywheel of the engine
automatically when the starter is powered or when the engine fires, respectively.
It is named after its inventor, Vincent Hugo Bendix.
The composition of the electrolyte in a fully charged battery is that the electrolyte is a mixture of 64%
distilled water and 36% sulphuric acid by weight . Very Very important
The negative terminal post on the top of a battery is smaller than the positive terminal post.
The discharged lead-acid battery has on its plates lead sulphate.
A maintenance free battery has lead-calcium plate grid. (my imaginary GF Kali  CaLe is maintenance
free)
The function of an alternator in an automobile is to continually recharge the battery.
The most accurate ignition system of a spark ignition engine is electronic control unit system.
 A heat treated glass generally used in automobiles bursts into small particles upon cracking.
A laminated glass upon cracking sandwiched layer traps the fragments. It is held in place by an interlayer,
typically of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) or ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA). Laminated glass is used when both
safety and security are in mind. It is made by bonding two pieces of glass together with a middle core of
plastic called polyvinyl butyral. This middle layer prevents the glass from separating when shattered,
reducing serious harm and lacerations. This type of glass is perhaps best known for its application in
windshields in all modern automobiles. Laminated glass lacks the strong outer skin that tempered glass has,
and as such is more prone to cracking when impacted.
The seat belt tensioners are built in the seat belt retractors.
Cushioning springs in clutch plate reduces jerky starts.
Clutch facings are usually attached to the plate by brass rivets.
 Free pedal play in car clutches is about 25 mm.
Note that clutch pedal free play is the distance by which you can press the clutch pedal before disengaging
the clutch from the transmission.
In a single dry plate clutch, torsional vibrations are absorbed by coil springs known as torsional springs.
The purpose of transmission in an automobile is to vary the torque at the wheels.
Two advantages of using helical gears rather than spur gears in a transmission system are noise level and
strength.
The gear shift lever requires two separate motions to shift gears, and the first movement selects the
synchronizer.
When a gear box has four forward speeds and one reverse speed, it is said to be a 4-speed gear box.
Which one of the following statement correctly describe the construction of a bevel-gear type differential?

[A]. The drive shafts are splined to the differential carrier.

[B]. The left side gear and the differential carrier rotate in constant unison.
[C]. The differential carrier houses differential pinion gears and side gears, each pinion gear meshes with a
different side gear.
[D]. The differential carrier houses differential pinion gears and side gears
Which one of the following statements correctly describes the construction of a planetary gear type differential ?

[A]. The six planetary pinions rotate in constant mesh with the internal gears. Explanation - There can be more
than six pinion
[B]. One drive shaft is splined to the central gear and the other to the planetary gear.
[C]. Each planetary pinion gear meshes with both the central gear and the internal gear. Explanation - central
and internal means same.
[D]. The internal gear is fixed to the planetary gear. Explanation - This is so false.
The torque converter uses automatic transmission fluid (ATF) to transfer torque. The fluid, aka transmission fluid or
tranny fluid, is the fluid used in vehicles with self-shifting or automatic transmissions. It is typically coloured red or
green to distinguish it from motor oil and other fluids in the vehicle.
The maximum torque multiplication ratio in a torque converter is about 2.5. NOTE - Multiplication ratios range
from 1.8:1 to 2.5:1.
In order to implement gear changes in the gear unit of an automatic transmission, a hydraulic multi plate clutch is
used.
The major purpose of an electronically-controlled automatic transmission is that this type of transmission reduces
shift shock and achieves more efficient transmission of engine torque.
 In a four wheel drive (4WD), the number of gear boxes are two.
Two speed reverse gear arrangement is generally provided in case of tractors.
A torque converter has three stages of operation: stall, acceleration, and coupling. Stall is when the transmission is
in gear, but the brakes prevent the car from moving. At stall, the torque converter can produce maximum torque
multiplication, called stall ratio, if sufficient input power is applied.
The acceleration stage sees the car moving but a relatively large difference between pump and turbine speed, where
the converter will produce torque multiplication that is less than what could be achieved under stall conditions.
Coupling is when the turbine reaches roughly 90 percent of the speed of the pump. There is no more torque
multiplication, and it would be at this stage when a lockup clutch would kick in. Lockup converters have an internal
lockup clutch that will lock the two halves of the torque converter together, eliminating any slippage where the
engine and trans cannot physically operate at the same speed. This, in turn, eliminates any wasted power and so
improves fuel efficiency by as much as 65 percent.

Independent
The majority of smaller cars on the market today have an independent suspension system.
These systems allow the two wheels on the same axle to move independently from one another.
One of the benefits of these systems is that because each tire will absorb the impact of the road separately,
they provide easier handling and a smoother ride. The sprung weight is low.
Rigid Axle
Rigid axle suspension systems are designed for the rear of larger vehicles.
These systems have a solid beam that extends between two wheels.
If you hit a bump on the road, both tires will receive the same impact. This means you aren’t going to get the
same smooth ride that you would in a vehicle with an independent system.
They can, however, carry heavier loads and are great for off-roading and towing, which is why they are
commonly found in the larger 4x4 vehicles.
Desirable in the vehicles whose suspension stroke is large owing to variation in cargo and/or passenger
weight.
SW – Weight of everything that suspension system supports, like engine, gearbox, chassis, interior are sprung
weight.
UW- weight of suspension system and its related components, like tires, wheels, hubs, arms are examples.
Semi sprung weight- weight of everthing that connects SW and UW like drive shaft.
The main feature of MacPherson strut suspension is that non-vertical external forces are supported by the
suspension arms.
Damper in an automobile is used to dissipate the energy.
The vehicle ride will be comfortable if unsprung mass is kept minimum. Explanation – For comfortable ride,
SM:UM should be more. Theoretically, SM >>UM UM should be minimum.
A front stabilizer bar is used to control suspension movement and body roll. Explanation – Stabilizer bars are part
of a car's suspension system. They are sometimes also called anti-sway bars or anti-roll bars. Their purpose in life is
to try to keep the car's body from "rolling" in a sharp turn.
The order in which effort applied to the steering wheel is transferred to the front wheel is steering wheel  steering
shaft  steering gearbox  tie rod  steering knuckle  front wheels.
The component that is responsible for converting the rotation of the steering wheel into lateral motion is the
steering gearbox.
In a hydraulic power steering system, the power steering pump is driven by a belt-driven by crankshaft.
Front Stabilizer Bar Wheel base and Track
A worm gear is used as the pinion for the rack and pinion type of steering gearbox, because it improves steering
comfort when steering wheel is turned to effect small changes in the direction of forward motion.
In vehicles with tilt steering, the steering column is pivoted in lower bracket.
The ball joints are used on the tie-rod ends, because they can deal with movement of the suspension both vertically
and in other directions.
A traction control system (TCS) in automobiles controls the torque that is transmitted by the tyres to the road
surface.
The main function of the tread pattern on tyre is that in wet conditions, the tread grooves expel water that is drawn
between the tyre and road surface.
Vulcanizing means heating rubber under pressure.
The tyre rotation is generally done at 10,000km.
The temperature at which tyre inflation pressure should be checked is ambient temperature.
Which of the following parameter can be adjusted by modifying the tie-rod attachment length ?

[A]. Camber
[B]. Caster
[C]. Toe
[D]. Steering gear ratio
Radial tires have the steel belts positioned at 90 degree to the tread pattern while in cross ply the same thing is 30 to
45 degree.
Radial tires are better in safety, better in control , more resistance to being punctured, lower rate of fuel
consumption and greater resistance to wear.
The only advantage of cross ply is that they gives smoother ride in low speed.
In bias ply, one ply layer runs diagonally one way and another layers run diagonally the other way, while all plies
run parallel to one another and vertical to the tire bead.
Notes:
1. Bead Wires are made of steel.
2. Side wall is the part of the tire that is subjected to the greatest flexing action.
The aspect ratio of a tyre is represented by a percentage that indicates the height of the tyre, from bead to tread, in
relation to the width of the tyre. @ H/W
The higher the aspect ratio of a tyre, the taller the sidewall of a tyre will be.
Heavy vehicles such as luxury cars, buses and trucks have tyres with aspect ratios as high as 95.
Tyres with high aspect ratio may compromise on handling but provide a more comfortable ride by cushioning
bumps due to more air in the tyre.
Opposite is true for low aspect ratio, found in high performance cars.
 In 205/45 R16 83 V, the aspect ratio of the tyre is 45 percent.

Tube tyre
 A tube inside a tire would simply collapse
in case of puncture and the air in the tyre
goes out in no time.
 Tube tyres are not so fuel efficient when
compared to tubeless tyres.
 Tube tyres weigh more because of the tube
placed inside them.
 The tube in the tube tyres will explode
suddenly in case of puncture causing loss
of control of the vehicle which may result
in accidents.
 The puncture repairing process of tube
tyre involves a complicated process of
removing the tyre from the vehicle and
removing tube from the tyre, etc.
 less cost and are available in every size for
every vehicle; repair cost is less but more
prone to punctures
Tubeless tyre
 Tubeless tyre retains air pressure and
helps avoid sudden air loss in the case of a
puncture.
 Tubeless tyres are more fuel efficient.
 Tubeless tyres are light weight because of
no tube inside the tyre.
 Tubeless tyres make driving safe and easy
and there is no loss of control of the
vehicle in case of puncture.
 The puncture repairing process of a
tubeless tyre can be done without
removing the tyre and is very simple
compared to a tubed tyre .
 costly and are not available for all types of
vehicles; puncture repair cost is very high
and can be repaired instantly; are durable
and last longer because of no tube is
placed in them
 front camber
Q. What Is The Best Camber Angle?
A. The best way to explain a camber angle is to imagine a freely rolling wheel. It is clear that such a wheel will have the greatest
contact patch with the road surface when it is exactly perpendicular to the road itself. This angle is called zero camber.
When a vehicle handles a corner, the centrifugal forces acting on it are balanced by the forces resulting from the tyre’s grip.
A negative camber is best, as it offers the best results when turning.
The value of the camber angle, specifically the angle of the wheels in relation to the road surface, are directly linked to the
vehicle’s height. As a result, any reduction in height will always affect these related values.
Also, caster (or castor) angle is the angular displacement from the vertical axis of the suspension of a wheel in a car,
measured in the longitudinal direction (angle of the kingpin when looked at from the side of the car).
Caster angle can be adjusted to optimize a car's handling characteristics for particular driving situations.
Caster effects don’t just exist on cars. They exist on anything that has wheels on the bottom of it.
For example, pay attention to the wheels on the shopping cart at your local supermarket. Most likely, these wheels
will have a positive caster because they were made to help you keep the cart straight as you push it.

Positive caster creates a lot of align torque (the force that straightens the steering wheel when you go forward)
which improves straight line stability of the car.
Due to the geometry of positive caster it also will increase negative camber gain (a good thing) when turning.
But, as you increase positive caster the steering will get heavier also,
However, with modern power steering systems this is rarely a problem.
Generally you want as much positive caster as you can reasonably get so long as the car is equipped with power
steering. Positive caster angles run between 3° - 5° on modern vehicles.
Negative caster is when the steering axis is behind the vertical. This is generally only found on older vehicles due to
tire technology, chassis dynamics, and other reasons like there was no power steering back then, so automakers had
to figure out a way to make the steering wheel feel lighter for the drivers. Modern vehicles do not use negative
caster.
Negative caster had trouble with stability and keeping on a straight path because the steering wheel often becomes
too light and it is easy to jerk around.
When turning a corner,

[A]. the front wheels are toeing out

[B]. the front wheels are turning on different angles
[C]. the inside front wheels has a greater angle than the outside wheel
[D]. all of the above

1. When the top of wheel is tilted outward, it is +ve camber.

 The axis around which the wheel rotates as it turns to the
right or left is called the “steering axis”.
 This axis is found by drawing an imaginary line between the
top of the shock absorber’s upper support bearing and the
lower suspension arm ball joint (in the case of strut type
suspensions).
 Furthermore, the distance “L” from the intersection of the
steering axis with the ground to the intersection of the wheel
center line with the ground is called the “offset”, “kingpin
offset” or “scrub radius”.
 NON ADJUSTABLE, gives directional stability as Caster,
only changes when parts are bent, VERY IMPORTANT TO
CHECK IN COLLISION WORK.

 Incorrect steering axis inclination (S.A.I.) causes poor

recovery of the steering wheel after making a turn
Included angle = SAI + Camber
An imbalance wheel during vehicle operation bounces vertically or deflects from side to side (as seen from front or
rear). The problems caused by it are steering wheel vibration and uneven tire wear.
The correct way to rectify an imbalanced wheel is to attach appropriate weights to the wheel at appropriate
positions.
The effect of having excess camber is uneven tire wear.

The most commonly used supplementary restraint system (SRS) component is airbag. The SRS System is designed
to supplement the seatbelt system and improve occupant protection in certain type of crushes. Airbags supplement
the seat belt and enhance passenger safety in certain types of collision.
The idle CO percentage should be measured with the vehicle only when Headlights and other electrical devices are
switched off.

The frequency of flashing of light per minute in a direction (side turn) indicator is about 90.
The brake warning light warns the driver of failure of the primary or secondary circuit of hydraulic system.
 The brake pedal during ABS operation transmits slight kickback to the driver's foot.
Brake drag is caused by the brake pads or shoes not releasing completely when the brake pedal is released. When
the brake pedal free play is less than the specified value, then the brake drags.
DOT4 brake fluid has a higher boiling point than DOT3, making the fluid less likely to boil. Using cheaper, lower-
grade fluid increases the chances of your brakes failing in situations where they build up lots of heat, e.g., driving
down a mountain on a twisty road.
Which of the following symptom is caused as a result of brake disc run out ?

[A]. Ineffectiveness of the brakes

[B]. Judder during braking
[C]. Localized wearing of the brake pads
[D]. Rapid wearing of the brake pads

The cause is almost always that the brakes are suffering from DTV: Disc Thickness Variation. DTV means the outside
and inside disc surfaces are no longer parallel. There are three main reasons for DTV: poor quality manufacturing,
incorrect fitting, sticking callipers and bad driving.
Low compressibility/ low viscosity (What???)
Constant boiling point
Low freezing point
Compatibility with the materials
Anticorrosion protection
Resistance to oxidation and thermal stability
Lubrication of mobile components
Notes-
The main function of the brake fluid is power transmission.
The condition that causes vapour locking in a brake system is overheating of the fluid due to frequent brake
application by which the liquid fuel changes state from liquid to gas while still in the fuel delivery system.
The effect of vapour locking on the brake performance is that the brakes fail completely.
The minimum parking brake force is generally 20 % of gross vehicle mass (GVM).
The parking brake generally acts on rear wheels and are applied mechanically.
The service brake is the system that is designed to slow down the vehicle and bring it to a stop. The service
brake is activated every time you step on the brake pedal and it distributes the braking force hydraulically
to the front and rear wheels, 75% front and 25% rear, on average.
The proportioning valve is installed on vehicle's with front disc, rear drum brake systems. They provide
balanced braking during sudden, hard braking by restricting fluid pressure to the rear brakes. This helps
prevent rear wheel lock up as the vehicle's weight is shifted toward the front wheels.
The function of a proportioning control valve (PCV) in a brake system is to cause less brake fluid
pressure to act on the rear brakes than on the front brakes when the fluid pressure exceeds a predetermined
level.
Brake Booster is a brake safety component that is coupled at intermediate position between brake pedal and brake
master cylinder.
It works as force multiplication component that uses engine vacuum to multiply the force applied by the driver on
the brake pedal before further sending it to the master cylinder
This multiplied force in turn provides effective braking as well as driver’s comfort in applying brakes.
The power source for a brake booster is the pressure difference between the atmospheric pressure and the vacuum
pressure in the intake manifold.
 enhances safety by serving two independent
lines in a divided-line brake circuit

The main function of

a master cylinder is
to convert brake
pedal force into
hydraulic pressure.
 disc contains radial vanes between its
rubbing surfaces for optimum cooling performance
The gradient resistance of the vehicle is Rg = Mg sin (ϴ).
Compression ration of petrol engine is between 8 to 10, while that of diesel engine is in between 10 to 15.
In a four cylinder in-line engine, the number of firing strokes in one revolution of the crankshaft is 2 (two).
In a lead acid battery, positive plates has lead peroxide while negative plate has spongy lead.
 A battery can be charged by applying the voltage in reverse direction to that of charging.
Material used to make cylinder block are Cast iron and aluminum alloys. Aluminum alloys are used because they
are lighter in weight and have good heat dissipation characteristics.
Piston compression ring, cylinder sleeves and cylinder liners are made of cast iron. (VERY IMPORTANT)
Balance shafts are used in piston engines to reduce vibration by cancelling out unbalanced dynamic forces.
The function of an oil control orifice is that it regulates the pressure of engine oil supplied by the oil pump for the
lubrication of cylinder head mechanism and other purposes
In an engine, the temperature of the piston will be more at the crown of the piston.
The function of the second ring is that it is a compression ring and aids the top ring in sealing and cooling( Khurmi
Book MCQ).
In a four stroke engine, for ach one revolution of crankshaft, the cam shaft revolves by one-half revolution.
Octane rating of petrol is 85-95.
The engine oil level should be checked a few minutes after the ignition switch is turned off.
1. Two-way Catalytic Converter - (or "oxidation", sometimes called an "oxi-cat") It is catalytic converter has two
simultaneous tasks:
a. Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2
b. Oxidation of hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially burned fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: hydrocarbon + O2 →
H2O + CO2
2. Three way Catalytic Converter - It has the additional advantage of controlling the emission of nitric oxide (NO)
and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (both together abbreviated with NOx, which are precursors to acid rain and smog)
a. Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2
b. Oxidation of hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially burned fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: hydrocarbon + O2 →
H2O + CO2
c. Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen (N2)
2 CO + 2 NO → 2 CO2 + N2
hydrocarbon + NO → CO2 + H2O + N2
2 H2 + 2 NO → 2 H2O + N2
A Three Way removes CO, HC and NO2 from exhaust gases passing through it. (Khurmi Book)
The process of supplying the intake air to the engine cylinder at a pressure greater than pressure of the surrounding
atmosphere is supercharging.
Air cleaner  Carburetor (throttle body)intake manifold  intake port  cylinders
The passage in the cylinder head which connects the intake manifold to the intake valve through which the fuel-
air mixture proceeds on its way to the cylinders is intake port.
 When the front wheel of the vehicle is locked during braking, the driver loses control over steering and the vehicle
continues moving in the current direction.
In manual shift cars, they still have almost always a single plate dry friction disc clutch, except for (perhaps) real
exotic supercars.
The minimum number of compression ring in cars is two.
The front end of the crankshaft is mounted with timing gear, fan pulley and vibration damper, while in the rear
end the flywheel is mounted.
The fuel tends to flow towards the crankcase. In fact, it flows down through the piston skirt towards the crankcase,
where it mixes with the engine oil.
This causes the lubricant to lose viscosity, meaning that the films formed are weaker and less capable of
withstanding high loads that can occur at certain points, such as the rod bearings and crankshaft areas.
This is called as ‘crankcase dilution’.
The Maintenance Free (MF) batteries are perfectly sealed to prevent acid/electrolyte/water leakage or loss and
therefore do not require addition of battery water hence they are maintenance-free.

The batteries are designed to provide high cranking performance upon starting hence able to start engines for more
cycles, hence longer service life. The batteries are designed to fit both cold and tropical climates, thus your journey
is assured across all climatic conditions.
Uses Lead – Calcium grid technology.
The correct flow of power through the drive train is engine  clutch  main shaft  counter shaft  final driven
gear  drive shafts  wheels
On rotating machinery, runout is defined as the degree to which a shaft or coupling deviates from true circular
rotation. Every shaft or coupling has a center or rotation, or centerline. Any stray from concentricity is considered
runout. If runout is severe, it can cause many problems with equipment, such as:

1. Excess vibration
2. Seal wear
3. Bearing damage
Most pistons are cam ground, meaning they are not perfectly round.
The diameter is largest in non-thrust end (along the piston pin axis) because they tend to expand more as
temperature of the piston increases.
Piston pins must be secured in position so that they do not protrude beyond the surface of the piston or have
excessive end-to-end motion. Otherwise, the pin will tend to damage the cylinder wall.
Piston pins may be secured in the connecting rod assembly in one of three ways: (1) rigidly fastened into the piston
bosses, (2) clamped to the end of the rod, or (3) free to rotate in both piston and rod.
When piston pins are secured by these methods, the pins are identified as (1) stationary (fixed), (2) semi floating,
and (3) full-floating, respectively.
The STATIONARY pin is secured to the piston at the bosses, and the connecting rod oscillates on the pin. Since all
movement is by the connecting rod, uneven wear may occur on the contacting surfaces in this type of installation.
For this reason, use of this type of pin is not typical in Navy diesel engines.
SEMIFLOATING pins are secured in the middle to the connecting rod. The ends of the pin are free to move in the
piston pin bearings in the bosses.
FULL-FLOATING pins are not secured to either the piston or the connecting rod. Pins of this type may be held in
place by caps, plugs, and snap rings, or spring clips which are fitted in the bosses. The securing devices for a full-
floating pin permit the pin to rotate in both the rod and piston pin bosses. Of the three types of piston pins, the full-
floating piston pin is the most common.
Engine valves are closed by valve springs.
The exhaust valve face angle is 45 degree.
The material used for inlet valve is Silicon-Chrome Steel.
The carbon from cylinder head is removed with scraper.
The types of wheel which cannot be used in tubeless tire is wire wheel.
The types of wheel preferred in sports car is Magnesium alloy wheel.
In case of wire wheel, the vehicle weight is supported by the wire in tension.
A tire ply rating is an expression of the tire’s strength and capacity. The ply rating translates in a very direct way to
tire capabilities and limitations.
Tread distortion is the least in radial tire.
The turning circle of a car is approximately 10m (exactly 10.82m).
 The best hydrocarbons from detonation point of view are aromatics.
Octane number of Indian lead free petrol is equal to octane number of leaded petrol.
The use of tetraethyl lead is gradually discontinued because it blocks the catalytic converter.
This happens when one side of the tread blocks is wearing faster than the other side circumferentially.
When you run your hand over the tread blocks, they will feel like saw teeth. Heel/toe wear typically occurs in a
shoulder rib and is often caused by excessive positive or negative toe.
Causes
1. Tires are not rotated timely
2. Underinflation and / or overload
3. Sudden braking or rapid acceleration
Recommendations
1. Rotate tires timely before heel & toe wear becomes serious
2. Use tire under proper air pressure and load
3. Avoid rough driving
Bad effects of detonation are - hamper vehicle’s performance, loss of power, force generated by detonation can
damage pistons, bearings, gaskets, and other engine components,
Prevention of detonation are - Use a Higher Octane Fuel, Have Your Ignition Timing Checked, Don't Use an
Excessive Compression Ratio and cooling the charge.
ON expresses the amount of compression a fuel can withstand before it combusts.
The higher the octane, the higher its resistance to compression.
Standard gasoline has an octane rating of 87.
Generally, sports car and cars with forced-induction air-intake systems such as superchargers or turbochargers can
be run with gasoline with high ON.
In order to produce the greatest amount of energy, engine combustion must be timed to occur just as gases inside of
the cylinder reach their most compressed point — in other words, at the very moment the piston finishes its
compression stroke. Achieving this timing can be tricky, given the high speeds at which an engine operates.
To make matters even worse, your spark plugs actually have to fire a split second before the moment of maximum
compression. Simply put, it takes a small amount of time for the spark to actually set the gases on fire. This duration
goes by the name of the ignition advance and is a crucial part of engine efficiency.
Yet detonation often ensues when an ignition advances too far — that is to say, when the spark plugs fire too soon.
The spark creates additional pressure inside of the cylinder. Couple with the pressure of compression, the spark's
pressure often causes the fuel to ignite, leading to detonation.
The primary function of lubrication is to reduce wear.
The friction that occurs between layers of oil in oil film is viscous friction.
The lubrication system in all modern car has oil filter.
 On leaving the engine, the coolant goes to the header tank.
The radiator core is made up of brass.
The pressure cap has pressure and vacuum valve.
The purpose of thermostat is to keep engine at desire temperature.
The thermostat valve starts to open at 80 degree Celsius and will be fully opened by 95 degree Celsius.
The coolant fans are of centrifugal type.
The cooling fans in an automobiles are run with electricity or belt drive (electrical type fans and mechanical types
fan).
The drive for mechanical fuel pump comes from camshaft.
The most accurate type of dynamometer is swinging field type.
The brake thermal efficiency of SI engine varies from 25 % to 30%.
During cold winter days, the temperature is low so the fuel is supplied into the cylinder in the liquid form.
As a result, there is a problem in initiation of combustion.
But there is a demand of more and more fuel i.e., rich air-fuel mixture.
This problem is solved by choke.
When the choke valve is closed, there is a significant pressure difference between the surroundings and the throat of
the venturi in the carburetor. This will lead to more metering of fuel into the throat chamber and as a result rich air-
fuel mixture is obtained.
When choke is applied, the fuel comes out from main jet.
The frame get distorted into parallelogram shape due to wheel impact with road obstacles.
Lateral bending of frame member may be caused on the account of side wind.
The maximum value of axial force at the clutch which a driver can apply while driving, without getting fatigued is
approximately 100N.
In clutch with coil springs, the wear of the clutch facing will cause the clamping load to decrease.
Clutch slippage while clutch is engaged in particularly noticeable during acceleration.
As a general rule, if the facing on the friction disc are worn down to the rivet heads, the friction disc should be
replace.
In order to engage securely and prevent dragging, the clearance between release bearing and release collar in the
clutch is 2-3mm.
Excessive clutch clearance caused by the improper adjustment or wear of sliding sleeve, generally results in clutch
failure to disengage.
In case of clutch, if any spring became weak, the remedy lies in replacing the spring.
Dragging, rattling, slipping and grabbing are the problems found in clutch.
The type of clutch fitted between engine and synchromesh gearbox is dry clutch.
Vehicle with automatic transmission has fluid clutch.
The damping force in the linings of a single plate friction clutch is given by diaphragm spring.
Clutch slippage could be caused by lack of clearance in the pedal linkage.
A bearing noise is heard when the engine running and the vehicle is stationary. But the noise ceases when the
clutch is disengaged. A possible cause is a defective primary shaft bearings.
The purpose of double declutching when changing down is to speed up the layshaft.
The symptom of ‘failure of clutch plates to separate’ difficulty in obtaining the first gear without noise.
The action which takes place in the clutch when the pedal is depressed is pressure plate moves away from the
flywheel.
The main force which opposes the driver when the pedal is depressed is due to the thrust springs.
Increasing in the torque in a vehicle is obtained by decreasing the speed.
In transmission system, if reverse gear slips out, the probable cause could be reverse sliding of gear tooth worn out,
main shaft worn out, reverse idler gear teeth worn, insufficient gear mesh.
The blades in the torque converter have a shape which is curved.
In a torque converter, maximum torque multiplication occurs at stop (stall).
Stator is the component of the torque converter that redirects the oil to impeller and it also allows the multiplication
of the torque.
Impeller is the component of the torque converter that drives the oil.
In simple epicyclic gear set, the output member to increase torque is always the planet carrier. But in reverse
system, the ring gear increase the torque.
By using synchronizing device, the two involved adjacent gears have their speeds equalized.
Critical whirling speed of a shaft is increased by decreasing its length.
The function of a universal joint is to allow the propeller shaft is to transfer torque at an angle.
The central portion of propeller shaft is made of steel tube.
A two-piece propeller shaft requires a center supporting bearing.
The inner end of the axle shaft is splined to the sun gear.
The adjustment for backlash in a differential is provided between crown wheel and the planet gear.
Hypoid gears require special lubricant because sliding action is there between the teeth.
The smallest gear inside the differential casing is pinion gear.
Salisbury type rear axle casing is also called unitized carrier casing.
The types of rear axles used in the truck is fully floating.
When the rear wheels are jacked up and gears are in neutral, turning one rear wheel forward in a rear drive vehicle
will cause the other wheel to turn backward.
Panhard rod is used to absorb the side thrust ( it prevents lateral movement).
A shackle is an integral component of the suspension system that attaches between the leaf spring and the vehicle
frame. It allows for the leaf spring to work through length changes during suspension articulation.
Spring eyes for heavy vehicles are usually bushed with phosphor bronze bushes. However, for cars and light
transport vehicles like vans, the use of rubber has also become a common practice. This obviates the necessity of
lubrication as in the case of bronze bushes.
Leaf spring inner-liners reduce the metal on metal friction(primary function) of a truck's leaf spring. Zinc is ideal
for this application since it is a low cost, self-lubricating metal that can reduce metal to metal sounds(secondary
function).
Another name of torsion bar is radius bar, while that of damper is shock absorber.
The coil spring in the wishbone suspension is placed in between the lower wishbone and the cross member.
Among wishbone type, MacPherson strut type, rigid axle, vertical guide suspension, the maximum room in the
engine compartment is provided with MacPherson strut types suspension system.
The cornering force divided by slip angle is called cornering power.
The side force sustained by the wheel during cornering divided by the slip angle is called cornering power.
Another name for the steering link rod is drag link.
If the steering wheel is turned 20° and the front wheels only turn 1°, that gives a steering ratio of 20:1. For most
modern cars, the steering ratio is between 12:1 and 20:1.
This, coupled with the maximum angle of deflection of the wheels gives the lock-to-lock turns for the steering
wheel. For example, if a car has a steering ratio of 18:1 and the front wheels have a maximum deflection of 25°,
then at 25°, the steering wheel has turned 25°x18, which is 450°. That's only to one side, so the entire steering goes
from -25° to plus 25° giving a lock-to-lock angle at the steering wheel of 900°, or 2.5 turns (900° / 360).
For racing cars, the steering ratio is normally much smaller than for passenger cars - i.e. closer to 1:1 - as quick and
swift deflection is necessary.
One purpose of recirculating types steering gear is that it reduces operating friction.
In the recirculating ball types steering gear, the balls travel between the ball nut and the worm shaft.
On the car having rack and pinion steering, the gear rack is attached to tie rod.

Out of round brake drums will cause the tire to wear in single spot.
The permissible mixing of cross ply and radial ply tires is cross ply tires in the front wheel while the radial ply
tires in the rear wheels. It is fatal to fit cross ply and radial construction tires on the same axle and to fit cross ply
tyres on the rear axle with radial or bias belted tires on the front axle. with radials on the front and bias on the rear is
the front end will stick and the back end will get loose real easy. This problem gets to be about 10 times worse if
there's a little bit of rain on the road. Hard braking can get to be down right scary
The brake efficiency of a new vehicle is about 80%.
Brake fade is loss of coefficient of friction.
Fading of brakes occurs during continuous brake application.
Due to weight transfer, the ratio of braking effect at the front wheel and at the brake wheel should be 60% and 40%.
The brakes employed in the car are usually operated hydraulically.
Component of wheel cylinder which seals the brake fluid is cup.
During braking the push rod directly operates the piston.
In drum type brakes the fluid on releasing, returns to the master cylinder due to action of piston return spring and
wheel-cylinder spring.
Intake port in the master cylinder allows brake fluid to flow around the recessed section of piston.
If proportioning valve is not working, front brake may lock.
Most anti-skid devices are employed on front brakes.
In disk brakes, pad-to-pad adjustment is provided by piston seal.
In Maruti car, disk brakes in the front and drum brakes in the rear wheel are installed.
On suspended vacuum brakes, there is vacuum on both sides of piston during brake release.
The hand brakes are usually operated on rear wheel.
The maximum disk run our allowed on the vehicle is generally 0.1mm.
The efficiency of hydraulic braking system is about 90%.
For faultless operation of hydraulic braking system, there should be minimum amount of trapped air. (NOT all of
them – brake fluid is pure, BPT of brake fluid is high, viscosity should be high)
If the brake wheels are locked before the vehicle stops, the vehicle skids.
The braking system provided on the trains is vacuum type.
The reaction time of an average driver from recognizing an obstacle is taken as 0.5 to 1.7 seconds.
For car speed up to 100kmph the mean deceleration is 2.5m/sec2.
A brake shoes are made of pressed steel and cast aluminum.
Brake linings are mounted on brake shoes.
The efficiency of mechanical brake is around 60 – 70 %.
 The brake pipes in hydraulic system are made of aluminum.
Which of the following is not the part of hydraulic braking system?
1. Master cylinder
2. Wheel Cylinder
3. Brake pedal
4. Steering Mechanism
5. Brake shoe
1. Grit in the linings
2. Drums are scored
3. Loose lining screw
4. Distorted brake spiders
For identification, the color of tail lights in a car is red.
Diameter and number of strand are the two quantities used for specifying an electrical wires.
In head lamp, the metal shield is placed below the dipper beam.
For aiming the head light, the distance between the headlights and screen is 7.6m.
In modern vehicle, the headlight dimming switch is mounted on the steering column.