GEOPHYSICS

Prepared by:
Pantoja, Christopher
Brandes, Arvin Mark
Molina, Nica
Balonzo, Angielica
Lamirez, Patrick Oliver
Mejia, Stephanie
Cajardo, Renee
Professor: Engr. Alejandrei Hemor
GEOPHYSICS
• Geophysics, branch of science that applies physical principles
to the study of the earth. Geophysicists examine physical
phenomena and their relationships within the earth; such phenomena
include the earth's magnetic field, heat flow, the propagation of
seismic (earthquake) waves, and the force of gravity. The scope of
geophysics also broadly includes outer-space phenomena that
influence the earth, even in subtle ways; the effects of the sun on the
earth's magnetic field; and manifestations of cosmic radiation and the
solar wind. There is an obvious need for it to introduce to engineers
and archaeologists much more widely than at present.
• For Engineers, the study of geophysics contributes a wide range
of knowledge for design specification and the behaviour of the earth
itself in construction as the time goes by and it gives us the best
choice for any related construction stuff.
RELATION BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND
GEOPHYSICS:
GEOLOGY
• It involves the study of the earth by direct observations on rocks
either from surface exposures or from boreholes and the deduction of
its structures, composition and historical evolution by analysis of such
observations.
GEOPHYSICS
• It involves the study of the inaccessible earth by means of physical
measurements, usually on or above the ground surface. It also
includes interpretation of the measurements in terms of subsurface
structures and phenomena.
• * Geophysical studies are quantitative and tangible, whereas
geological studies are qualitative and descriptive.
PERSONS BEHIND THE WORD

• Geophysicist – is someone who studies the Earth using gravity,

magnetic, electrical, and seismic method.
• Seismologist – persons who study earthquakes and planetary
activities as well as their effects. Usually work in offices and
laboratories, but may travel to sites of seismic activities.
• Meteorologist - responsible for forecasting the weather. However,
this is not the only task for which a meteorologist is responsible.
Meteorologists are also expected to conduct scientific research. They
also often function in professor roles as educators. Another important
function of a meteorologist is working to predict and alleviate the
damages of natural disasters such as tornadoes, earthquakes, and
hurricane.
• Glaciologists - study all aspects of ice, from the polar ice caps to
mountain glaciers. That is, they research all the natural phenomena on
Earth that involve ice. "This can be anything frozen, sometimes
including snow and permafrost research," says Martin Jeffries. He is a
glaciologist in Alaska.
• Geomagnetists - are specialist type of geologist, one of the oldest
physical sciences. Where geologists study rocks and the physical
processes of the Earth, geomagnetists study that which cannot be seen
- the magnetic processes of geological features and the Earth as a
whole.
• Hydrologist - a scientist who researches the distribution, circulation
and physical properties of underground and surface waters. He or she
may help environmental scientists and other scientists preserve and
clean up the environment or may search for groundwater. This is one
of many green jobs,
• Geodesists - measure and monitor the Earth’s size and shape,
geodynamic phenomena (e.g., tides and polar motion), and gravity
field to determine the exact coordinates of any point on Earth and
how that point will move over time.
 HISTORY
Classical Observation Period
In circa 240 BC, Eratosthenes of Cyrene measured
the circumference of the Earth, using trigonometry and the angle of the
Sun at more than one latitude in Egypt. There is some information about
earthquakes in Aristotle's Meteorology, in Naturalis Historia by Pliny the
Elder, and in Strabo's Geographica. Aristotle and Strabo recorded
observations on tides.

The beginning of geophysics has been started since:

• Gilbert's discovery which stated that the earth behaves as a great and
irregular magnet.
• Newton 's theory of gravitation.
• The initial step in the application of geophysics to the search for
minerals was taken in 1843 by von warde which used the magnetic
theodolite of Lamont to discover magnetic ore bodies.
• in 1879 a book by Robert Thalen was published entitled “On The
Examination of Iron Ore Deposits by Magnetic Methods".
• At that time, the first magnetometer called Thalen-Tiberg
magnetometer was manufactured in Sweden.
• During the past seventy years, geophysics was used greatly in oil and
gas exploration and many geophysical techniques have been
developed for the detection and mapping of unseen deposits and
structures.
• Advances have been rapid during the past decade because of the
development of new electronic devices for field equipment and the
widespread applications of the digital computer in the interpretation
of geophysical data.
• Several of the devices now used by geophysicists were developed
from methods used for locating guns, submarines and aircraft during
the two world wars.
• Arguably the first modern experimental treatise was William
Gilbert's De Magnete (1600), in which he deduced that compasses
point north because the Earth itself is magnetic. In 1687, Isaac
Newton published his Principia, which not only laid the foundations
for classical mechanics and gravitation but also explained a variety of
geophysical phenomena such as tides and the precession of the
equinox. These experimental and mathematical analyses were to
several areas of geophysics: Earth’s shape, density, and gravity field,
Earth’s magnetic field seismology and the Earth's age, heat and
radioactivity.
• The first known use of the word geophysics was by Julius Fröbel in
1834 (in German). It was used occasionally in the next few decades,
but did not catch on until journals devoted to the subject began to
appear, beginning with Beiträge zur Geophysik in 1887. The future
Journal of Geophysical Research was founded in 1896 with the title
Terrestrial Magnetism.

20th Century
• The 20th century was a revolutionary age for geophysics. As an
international scientific effort between 1957 and 1958, the
International Geophysical Year or IGY was one of the most important
for scientific activity of all disciplines of geophysics: aurora and
airglow, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, gravity, ionospheric physics,
longitude and latitude determinations (precision mapping),
meteorology, oceanography, seismology and solar activity.
DEVELOPMENT
• The historical development of geophysics has been motivated by two
factors. One of these is the research curiosity of humankind related to
Planet Earth and its several components, its events and its problems.
The second is economical usage of Earth's resources (ore deposits,
petroleum, water resources, etc.) and Earth-related hazards such as
earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, tides, and floods.

EMERGENCE AS DISCIPLINE
• The first known use of the word geophysics was by Julius Fröbel in
1834 (in German). It was used occasionally in the next few decades,
but did not catch on until journals devoted to the subject began to
appear, beginning with Beiträge zur Geophysik in 1887. The
future Journal of Geophysical Research was founded in 1896 with
the title Terrestrial Magnetism.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
• The most common applied form of geophysics is in mineral and
petroleum exploration. It is most often used to identify prime targets
for onshore and offshore oil and gas drilling using seismic methods .
• Industrial applications of geophysics were developed by demand of
petroleum exploration and recovery in the 1920s. Later, petroleum,
mining and groundwater geophysics were improved. Earthquake
hazard minimization and soil/site investigations for earthquake-prone
areas were new applications of geophysical engineering in the 1990s.
 AREAS OF STUDY
• Subdivision of the wide-ranging subject matter of geophysics into
various branches involves categorizing specific endeavors. Strictly
speaking, however, the discipline embraces all fields devoted to
researching the earth's interior, atmosphere, hydrosphere (waters), and
ionosphere (ionized upper atmosphere). Related fields are included in
the following descriptions.
BRANCHES OF GEOPHYSICS

• Biogeophysics – study of how plants, microbial activity and other

organisms alter geologic materials and affect geophysical signatures.
• Exploration geophysics – the use of surface methods to detect
concentrations of ore minerals and hydrocarbons.
• Geophysical fluid dynamics – study of naturally occurring, large-
scale flows on Earth and other planets.
• Geodesy – measurement and representation of the Earth, including its
gravitational field.
• Geodynamics – study of modes of transport deformation within the
Earth: rock deformation, mantle convection, heat flow, and
lithosphere dynamics.
• Geomagnetism – study of the Earth's magnetic field, including its
origin, telluric currents driven by the magnetic field, the Van Allen
belts, and the interaction between the magnetosphere and the solar
wind.
• Mathematical geophysics – development and applications of
mathematical methods and techniques for the solution of geophysical
problems.
• Mineral physics – science of materials that compose the interior of
planets, particularly the Earth.
• Near-surface geophysics – the use of geophysical methods to
investigate small-scale features in the shallow (tens of meters)
subsurface.
• Paleomagnetism – measurement of the orientation of the Earth's
magnetic field over the geologic past.
• Seismology – study of the structure and composition of the Earth
through seismic waves, and of surface deformations
during earthquakes and seismic hazards.
• Tectonophysics – study of the physical processes that cause and result
from plate tectonics.
GEOPHYSICS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING.
The full potential of geophysics in engineering investigations is yet to be
realised. With investigative capabilities ranging from the detail of well-
logging to the long traverses of studies of geological structure, the many
available techniques can provide important information about the
gromad, its mass properties, its small-scale Variations, and its anomalies
of structure or content.
The advantage of a geophysical survey is that it enables information to
be obtained for large volumes of ground that cannot be investigated by
direct methods because of the costs involved. The applications of
geophysics in the characterisation of contaminated land, eg: the
distribution and migration of pollutants in the ground and groundwater,
are still developing, but with great potential.
These are still insufficiently or inappropriately used in engineering and
the newer capabilities are not appreciated. There is a need for up-to-date
guidance about how to apply geophysical investigation. The use of
physics to study the interior of the Earth, from land surface to the inner
core is known as Solid Earth Geophysics or Solid Earth Physics.
SOLID EARTH PHYSICS
Solid Earth Physics
Embracing all fields devoted to the earth's interior, solid earth physics
involves studying the behavior of earth materials from the crust down to
the core particularly as they relate to the earth's size and shape, gravity,
magnetism, and seismicity. Involved in this study are the determination
of the earth's gravitational field and observation of variations in the
earth's rotation, the location of the poles, and tides.

Solid Earth Geophysics can be subdivided into Global Geophysics or

pure Geophysics and Applied Geophysics.
• Global Geophysics is the study of the whole or substantial parts of
the planet. Geophysical methods may be applied to a wide range of
investigations from studies of the entire earth to exploration of a
localized region of the upper crust, such as plate tectonics, heat flow
and paleomagnetism.

• Applied Geophysics is the study of the Earth's crust and near surface
to achieve an economic aim, or making and interpreting
measurements of physical properties of the earth to determine
subsurface conditions usually with an economic objectives ( e.g.
discovery of fuel or mineral deposities).
Applied Geophysics Comprises the following subjects:
1- Determination of the thickness of the crust (which is important in
hydrocarbon exploration.
2- Study of shallow structures for engineering site investigations.
3- Exploration for ground water and for minerals and other economic
resources.
4- Trying to locate narrow mine shafts or other forms of buried cavities.
5- The mapping of archaeological remains.
GENERAL REVIEW OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
* The physical properties of rocks have been used to devise geophysical
methods that are essential in the search for minerals, oil and gas and
other geological and environmental problems.

* Geophysical methods respond to the physical properties of the

subsurface media (rocks, sediments, water, voids, etc.. ) and can be used
Successfully when one region differs sufficiently from another in some
physical property.
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS: INDIRECT SITE
EXPLORATION
A geophysical exploration may be included in a site investigation for an
important engineering project in order to provide subsurface information
over a large area at reasonable cost.
These methods can be classified into two distinct types:
1. Passive
2. Active

1. Passive methods:
Which detect variations within the natural fields associated with
the earth, like the gravitational and magnetic fields, such as gravity,
magnetic, some electric and some electromagnetic methods, radioactive
and geothermal methods.
Electromagnetic Methods
A wide variety of electromagnetic survey methods are available,
each involving the measurement of one or more electric or magnetic field
components induced in the ground by a primary field. A primary field is
produced by a natural (transient) current source or an alternating current
artificial source, and this field spreads out in space above and below the
ground, inducing currents in subsurface conductors.
Magnetic Methods
All rocks, mineral and ore deposits are magnetized to a lesser or
greater extent by the Earth’s magnetic field. As a consequence, in
magnetic surveying, accurate measurements are made of the anomalies
produced in the local geomagnetic field by this magnetization on their
history.
Gravity Methods
Gravity methods are used mainly in regional reconnaissance
surveys to reveal anomalies that may be investigated subsequently by
other methods. Since the gravitational effects of geological bodies are
proportional to the contrast in density between them and their
surroundings, gravity methods are particularly suitable for the location of
structures in stratified formations. Gravity effects due to local structures
in near surface strata may be partly obscured or distorted by regional
gravity effects caused by large-scale basement structures.
2. Active methods:
These artificially generated signals transmitted into the ground
and then modify the received signals in ways that are characteristic of the
materials through which they travel. Examples of these methods are
seismic and some electrical methods.

Seismic Methods
The sudden release of energy from the detonation of an
explosive charge in the ground or the mechanical pounding of the surface
generates shock waves that radiate out in a hemispherical wave front
from the point of release. The velocities of the shock waves generally
increase with depth below the surface since the elastic moduli increase
with depth.
Resistivity Methods
The resistivity of rocks and soils varies within a wide range.
Since most of the principal rock forming minerals are practically
insulators, the resistivity of rocks and soils is determined by the amount
of conducting mineral constituents and the content of mineralized water
in the pores. The latter condition is by far the dominant factor, and in
fact, most rocks and soils conduct an electric current only because they
contain water.
Cross-Hole Methods
The cross-hole seismic method is based on the transmission of
seismic energy between drillholes. In its simplest form, cross-hole
seismic measurements are made between a seismic source in one
drillhole (i.e. a small explosive charge, an air gun, a drillhole hammer, or
an electrical sparker) and a receiver at the same depth in an adjacent
drillhole.
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
Terrestrial Magnetism
Terrestrial Magnetism or Geomagnetism refers to the study of magnetic
phenomena exhibited by the earth and its atmosphere.

Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is

the magnetic field that extends from the Earth's interior out into space,
where it meets the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emanating
from the Sun.
IMPORTANCE
• The Earth's magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind,
whose charged particles would otherwise strip away the ozone layer
that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• The study of past magnetic field of the Earth is known as
Paleomagnetism. The polarity of the Earth's magnetic field is
recorded in igneous rocks, and reversals of the field are thus
detectable as "stripes" centered on mid-ocean ridges where the sea
floor is spreading, while the stability of the geomagnetic poles
between reversals has allowed paleomagnetists to track the past
motion of continents
• Humans have used compasses for direction finding since the 11th
century A.D. and for navigation since the 12th century.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
Intensity
The intensity of the field is often measured in gauss (G). A map
of intensity contours is called an isodynamic chart. As the World
Magnetic Model shows, the intensity tends to decrease from the poles to
the equator.

Inclination
The inclination is given by an angle that can assume values
between -90° (up) to 90° (down). In the northern hemisphere, the field
points downwards. It is straight down at the North Magnetic Pole and
rotates upwards as the latitude decreases until it is horizontal (0°) at the
magnetic equator. It continues to rotate upwards until it is straight up at
the South Magnetic Pole. Inclination can be measured with a dip circle.
Declination
Declination is positive for an eastward deviation of the field
relative to true north. It can be estimated by comparing the magnetic
north/south heading on a compass with the direction of a celestial pole.
Maps typically include information on the declination as an angle or a
small diagram showing the relationship between magnetic north and true
north. Information on declination for a region can be represented by a
chart with isogonic lines (contour lines with each line representing a
fixed declination).
MAGNETOSPHERE
Earth's magnetic field, predominantly dipolar at its surface, is
distorted further out by the solar wind. This is a stream of charged
particles leaving the Sun's corona and accelerating to a speed of 200 to
1000 kilometers per second. They carry with them a magnetic field,
the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF).
The solar wind exerts a pressure, and if it could reach Earth's
atmosphere it would erode it. However, it is kept away by the pressure of
the Earth's magnetic field. The magnetopause, the area where the
pressures balance, is the boundary of the magnetosphere. Despite its
name, the magnetosphere is asymmetric, with the sunward side being
about 10 Earth radii out but the other side stretching out in
a magnetotail that extends beyond 200 Earth radii. Sunward of the
magnetopause is the bow shock, the area where the solar wind slows
abruptly.
The geomagnetic field changes on time scales from milliseconds to
millions of years. Shorter time scales mostly arise from currents in the
ionosphere (ionospheric dynamo region) and magnetosphere, and some
changes can be traced to geomagnetic storms or daily variations in
currents. Changes over time scales of a year or more mostly reflect
changes in the Earth's interior, particularly the iron-rich core.

Background: a set of traces from magnetic

observatories showing a magnetic storm in
2000.

Globe: map showing locations of

observatories and contour lines giving
horizontal magnetic intensity in μ T.
MAGNETIC FIELD REVERSALS

Although generally Earth's field is approximately dipolar, with an axis

that is nearly aligned with the rotational axis, occasionally the North and
South geomagnetic poles trade places. Evidence for these geomagnetic
reversals can be found in basalts, sediment cores taken from the ocean
floors, and seafloor magnetic anomalies. The past magnetic field is
recorded mostly by strongly magnetic minerals, particularly iron
oxides such as magnetite, that can carry a permanent magnetic moment.
MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS

Detection
The Earth's magnetic field strength was measured by Carl
Friedrich Gauss in 1832 and has been repeatedly measured since then,
showing a relative decay of about 10% over the last 150 years.
The Magsat satellite and later satellites have used 3-axis vector
magnetometers to probe the 3-D structure of the Earth's magnetic field.
Governments sometimes operate units that specialize in
measurement of the Earth's magnetic field. These are geomagnetic
observatories, typically part of a national Geological survey.
 Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the
Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns,
some types of stone structures, and even ditches
and middens in archaeological geophysics. Using
magnetic instruments adapted from airborne
magnetic anomaly detectors developed during
World War II to detect submarines, the magnetic
A MODEL OF SHORT- variations across the ocean floor have been mapped.
WAVELENGTH FEATURES OF
EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD, Basalt — the iron-rich, volcanic rock making up the
ATTRIBUTED TO ocean floor — contains a strongly magnetic mineral
LITHOSPHERIC ANOMALY
(magnetite) and can locally distort compass
readings. The distortion was recognized by
Icelandic mariners as early as the late 18th century.
Statistical models
Each measurement of the magnetic field is at a particular place and
time. If an accurate estimate of the field at some other place and time is
needed, the measurements must be converted to a model and the model
used to make predictions.

Schematic representation of spherical harmonics on a

sphere and their nodal lines. Pℓ m is equal to 0
along m great circles passing through the poles, and
along ℓ-m circles of equal latitude. The function
changes sign each ℓtime it crosses one of these lines.

Spherical harmonics
The most common way of analyzing the global
variations in the Earth's magnetic field is to fit
the measurements to a set of spherical
harmonics. This was first done by Carl
Friedrich Gauss. Spherical harmonics are
functions that oscillate over the surface of a
sphere. A monopole is an isolated magnetic
charge, which has never been observed.
A dipole is equivalent to two opposing charges
brought close together and a quadrupole to two
dipoles brought together. A quadrupole field is
shown in the lower figure on the right. EXAMPLE OF A QUADRUPOLE
FIELD. THIS CAN ALSO BE
CONSTRUCTED BY MOVING
TWO DIPOLES TOGETHER.
GRAVITY AND TIDES
GRAVITY
Gravity is the attractive force exerted by the mass of the earth.
The gradient of the gravitational potential–that is, the force of gravity–is
perpendicular to the surface of the earth, which means that the force acts
in the vertical direction. Gravimeters are highly sensitive balances used
to make relative gravity measurements. Differences in relative gravity
due to variations in the earth's density below the measurement site are
referred to as Bouguer anomalies.
The rotation of the earth in the gravity fields of the moon and
sun imposes periodicities in the gravitational potential at any point on the
earth's surface. Tides are the most obvious effect; in addition to marine
tides, solid earth tides occur as slight crustal deformations.
Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727)
• Building on the results of Galileo and Kepler
• Adding physics interpretations to the mathematical
descriptions of astronomy by Copernicus, Galileo and
Kepler

Major achievements:
1.Invented Calculus as a necessary tool to solve
mathematical problems related to motion
2.Discovered the three laws of motion
3.Discovered the universal law of mutual gravitation
Velocity and Acceleration
Acceleration (a) is the change of a
body’s velocity (v) with time (t):
1. Acceleration in the conventional sense
(i.e. increasing speed)
A = v/t
Different cases of acceleration:
Velocity and acceleration are directed
quantities (vectors)
2. Deceleration (i.e. decreasing speed)
3. Change of the direction of motion
(e.g., in circular motion)
THE UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITY

Any two bodies are attracting each

other through gravitation, with a force
proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to
the square of their distance:
F = - G(M1M2)/d2
UNDERSTANDING ORBITAL MOTION
The universal law of gravity allows us to understand orbital motion of planets
and moons:
• Earth and moon attract each other through gravitation.
Example:
•Since Earth is much more massive than the moon, the moon’s effect on Earth is
small.
• Earth’s gravitational force constantly accelerates the moon towards Earth.
•This acceleration is constantly changing the moon’s direction of motion, holding
it on its almost circular orbit.
Geosynchronous Orbits
THE TIDES
Caused by the difference of the Moon’s
gravitational attraction on the water on
Earth
Stronger gravity from moon causes water
to accumulate on the near side, Forces are
balanced at the center of the Earth. Weaker
gravity from moon causes water to
accumulate on the far side. Stronger
gravity from moon causes water to
accumulate on the near side.
- 2 tidal maxima
- 12 hour cycle
● Tides result from the differential gravitational force across a finite
sized object. Simply put, the near side of the object feels a stronger tug
of gravity than the far side.
● Tides result from the differential gravitational force across a finite
sized object. Consider the gravitational force acting on a parcel of mass
at the center of the object.
● Tides result from the differential gravitational force across a finite
sized object. Subtract the force at the center of the object from all of the
other force vectors and the resultant forces represent the tidal stresses on
the object.
How Much Do Things Stretch in Response
● A completely rigid object will not change shape in response
to tidal forces.
● A fluid will adjust to fill a surface of constant potential
energy.
– a fluid on a more rigid sphere (Earth's oceans) will flex
differentially to the solid surface.
● solid body lunar tides in the Earth are about 0.3 meter on
average
● ocean tides are about 1 meter on average
– this 1 meter is in excess of the solid body tides
Ocean Tides
● High ocean ties occur approximately every 12.5 hours as the Earth
rotates beneath the slowly orbiting Moon.
● A given location experiences two high tides a day as Earth rotation
carries the observer through each of the tidal bulges.

THE MOON ORBITS SLOWLY ENOUGH RELATIVE TO

EARTH'S ROTATION RATE (29.5 DAY SYNODIC MONTH
VS. 1 DAY-LONG DAY) THAT WE CAN CONSIDER IT
OCCUPYING A FIXED LOCATION IN SPACE
Ocean Tides vs. Latitude
● The Moon's orbit lies close to the ecliptic plane and thus is
significantly inclined to the Earth's equator.
● Add to that the 5-degree inclination of the Moon's orbit to the Ecliptic
and the Moon can reach a declination of nearly 30 degrees.
● A location's two high tides can be quite different in a given day
depending on the Moon's declination.
Solar vs. Lunar Tides
● In the force equations M is the mass of the tide-causing object, r is the
separation between the two objects. dr is the size of the object on which
the tides are being raised.
● The Sun is 30 million times the mass of the Moon, but the Moon is 400
times closer than the Sun.
● The Sun has about 1/3 the Moon's tidal influence on the Earth.
Superposition of the Solar and Lunar Tides
When the Sun and Moon align (New and Full Moon) tides are
higher than when they raise tides in different directions (First and Last
Quarter Moon). Note that planetary tides, often invoked by nutcase
theories of global doom from planetary alignment, are vanishingly
insignificant compared to the Sun and Moon.

The Slowing of Earth Rotation

Due to friction, the Earth's tidal bulges are carried slightly ahead
of the Moon. The net forces lead to a slowing of Earth rotation and a
corresponding increase in the angular momentum of Moon's orbit.
The Changing Day
Due to tidal effects the day gets about 1 second longer every
60,000 years. About 400 million years ago the day was only 22 hours
long. The day will be 25 hours long in another 200 million years.
Interestingly, the second was defined using measurements from more
than 200 years earlier. Using this “stale” second, The Earth runs slow
enough that we have to add a leap second into timekeeping every couple
of years.
Consequences for the Moon
Tidal coupling moves the Moon a few centimeters further from the
Earth each year. Although small, this effect is measured to great accuracy
with pulses of laser light bounced off of retro-reflectors on the Moon.
- The Moon was once much closer; maybe 1/20th its current distance.
- We live in the last era where total solar eclipses are possible.
- Total eclipses are becoming increasingly less frequent.
- soon (in about 100 million years) all central eclipses will be annular.
- The Earth was even more effective at slowing the Moon's rotation.
- Although it may have originally spun rapidly, the Moon is now in a
state where it turns at the same rate that it orbits the Earth.
VOLCANOLOGY
VOLCANOLOGY
Volcanologic studies are concerned with the surface eruption of
gas-charged magmas (molten rock materials) from within the earth and
with the structures, deposits, and landforms associated with such activity.
Although no single set of volcanic activities reliably indicates
future volcanic events, certain processes provide geophysicists with clues
to possible forthcoming eruptions. Such phenomena include changes in
the strength and orientation of the earth's magnetic field; swarms of
microearthquakes; increased heat flow in the earth, sometimes detected
by thermocouples or from infrared aerial photos; variations in local
electrical currents within the earth; increased exhalations of gases from
fumaroles and vents; and the tumescence (bulging upward) of magma
domes.
Physical Nature of Magma
Magma is a completely or partially molten natural substance,
which on cooling, solidifies as a crystalline or glassy igneous rock. It is
usually rich in silica and capable of flowing under moderate differential
stress. Magmas may carry rock fragments or crystals in suspension, and
they normally contain gaseous (volatile) components in solution.

Structural State of Silicate Melts

Modern concepts of silicate liquid structure are based on the
Zachariasen Model. The atoms are bonded by forces similar to those
between atoms of crystals, but lack long range periodicity and symmetry.
The magmas have silica (and alumina) tetrahedra linked (or polymerized)
in three dimensional networks in which (bridging) oxygen atoms are
shared by two or more tetrahedra; the Si and Al cations are termed
"framework cations."
Viscosity
Viscosity is a fluid's internal resistance to flow. Viscosity is the
most important of these properties, because it plays a role in factors
controlling both the style of volcanic eruption and the physical nature of
volcanic products.
Controls on Viscosity
• Silica composition
The strong dependence of viscosity of molten silicates on Si
content can be illustrated by those of various Na-Si-O compounds:
Na:Si:O (poises)
0:1:2 1010
1:1:2.5 28
2:1:3 1.5
4:1:4 0.2
The decrease in viscosity can be attributed to a reduction in the
proportion of framework silica tetrahedral, and therefore, strong Si-O
bonds in the magma.
• Temperature
Temperatures of erupting magmas normally fall between 700° and
1200°C; lower values, observed in partly crystallized lavas, probably
correspond to the limiting conditions under which magmas flow. Low
temperatures characterize silica-rich rhyolite magmas, whereas the
highest temperatures are observed in basalts.
• Time
At temperatures below the beginning of crystallization, viscosity
also increases with time. If magma is undisturbed at a constant
temperature, its viscosity may continue to increase for many hours before
it reaches a steady value.
• Volatiles
The solubility of gases in magmas varies with pressure,
temperature and composition of both the gas and the magmatic liquid.
Because the volume of a melt with dissolved gas is less than that of a
melt and separate gas (vapor) phase, solubility increases as gas pressure
increases.
• Pressure
The effect of pressure is relatively unknown, but viscosity
appears to decrease with increasing pressure at least at temperatures
above the liquidus. As pressure increases at constant temperature, the
rate at which viscosity decreases is less in basaltic magma than that in
andesitic magma.
• Bubble Content
The effect of gas bubbles (vesicles) on the bulk viscosity of
magmas can be variable, and depends on:
(1) the degree of bubble formation (that is, vesiculation);
(2) the size and distribution of bubbles; and,
(3) the viscosity of the intervening melt.
• Yield Strength
Most magmas have an appreciable yield strength, which shows a
marked increase below their liquidus temperature. As yield strength
increases, the stress required to initiate and sustain flow becomes greater,
and the magma's apparent or effective viscosity is also increased.
• Specific Heat
The specific heat (Cp) of magma, which is the heat required to
change the temperature of the liquid 1 degree Celsius, is typically about
0.3 cal. gm-1. The specific heat contrasts greatly with heat of fusion or
crystallization, which is the heat that must be added to melt or removed
to crystallize a unit mass that is already at a temperature where liquid
and solid coexist.
• Thermal Conductivity
Igneous rocks and liquids are poor conductors of heat. Thermal
conductivity depends on two heat transfer mechanisms:
(1) ordinary lattice or phonon conduction; and,
(2) radiative or photon conduction.
• Density
Magma densities range from about 2.2 gm cm-3 for rhyolite to
2.8 gm cm-3 for basalts, illustrating a close density-melt composition
relationship, primarily reflecting the influence of higher concentrations
of Fe, Mg and Ca cations in basalts. In contrast, magma density
decreases with increasing temperature and gas content. These densities
increase a few percent between liquid and crystalline states.
• Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity, which is low in pure silica melts,
increases with increasing abundance of metallic cations, especially alkali
elements, and increases abruptly in the melting range.
• Seismic Wave Velocities
Compressional or P-wave velocities are about 6 km sec-1 up to
the melting range, then decrease abruptly to 2.5 km sec-1 at higher
temperatures. Shear or S-wave velocities are about 2-3 km sec-1, which
drop abruptly at melting temperatures.
Prediction Hazard Assessment
• Geophysics • Geology
• Earthquakes precede eruptions • Field geologists study old volcanic
deposits
• Seismic analysis can allow us to
image magma chambers and • Build maps of a volcanic region
conduits showing previously effected areas
• Geochemistry
• Volcanoes tend to de-gas via Types of Hazard
fumaroles
• Gases
• Changes in fumarole chemistry
can herald eruptions • Lava flows
• Can also be reflected in crater • Ash falls
lakes • Pyroclastic flows
• Lahars
Organics
• Safe testing ground for a new
sampling method
• Starting to catalogue and quantify
the organic fraction of the global
volcanic gas budget
• CFCs and other halocarbons are
important to the environmental
sciences
• Abiogenic synthesis is significant
to the study of the origins of life
Trace Metals
• The volatilisation and movement
of metals in a volcanic conduit
may be a major ore forming
process
• Heavy metal contamination
downwind of volcanoes is
increasingly recognised
• Gas analyses may help predict
magma compositions – and
therefore eruption dynamics –
before explosive events
Modern volcanology
Volcanologist examining tephrahorizons in south-central Iceland.
In 1841, the first volcanological observatory, the Vesuvius
Observatory, was founded in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
Seismic observations are made using seismographs deployed near
volcanic areas, watching out for increased seismicity during volcanic
events, in particular looking for long period harmonic tremors, which
signal magma movement through volcanic conduits.
Surface deformation monitoring includes the use of geodetic
techniques such as leveling, tilt, strain, angle and distance measurements
through tiltmeters, total stations and EDMs. This also includes GNSS
observations and InSAR. Surface deformation indicates magma
upwelling: increased magma supply produces bulges in the volcanic
center's surface.
Why is it important to monitor volcanoes?
Volcanic eruptions are one of Earth's most dramatic and violent
agents of change. Not only can powerful explosive eruptions drastically
alter land and water for tens of kilometers around a volcano, but tiny
liquid droplets of sulfuric acid erupted into the stratosphere can change
our planet's climate temporarily. Eruptions often force people living near
volcanoes to abandon their land and homes, sometimes forever. Farther
away, cities, crops, industrial plants, transportation systems, airplanes,
and electrical grids can still be damaged by tephra, ash, lahars, and
flooding.
SEISMOLOGY
Seismology
Comprehensive understanding of global seismic activity became
possible with the recognition that major earthquakes are triggered by
movement of the earth's tectonic plates. In addition, much of what we are
able to surmise about the earth's mantle and core has been gained by
studying the passage of earthquake waves through the center of the earth.
Seismology is science dealing with all aspects of earthquakes:
OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
• Recording earthquakes (microseismology)
• Cataloguing earthquakes
• Observing earthquake effects (macroseismology)
ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY
• Estimation of seismic hazard and risk
• Aseismic building
• ‘PHYSICAL’ SEISMOLOGY
• Study of the properties of the Earth’s interior
• Study of physical characteristics of seismic sources
Myths and legends
Earthquakes occur:
• When one of the eight elephants that carry the Earth gets tired (Hindu)
• When a frog that carries the world moves (Mongolia)
• When the giant on whose head we all live, sneezes or scratches (Africa)
• When the attention of the god Kashima (who looks after the giant
catfish Namazu that supports the Earth and prevents it to sink into the
ocean) weakens and Namazu moves (Japan)
• When the god Maimas decides to count the population in Peru his
footsteps shake the Earth. Then natives run out of their huts and yell:
“I’m here, I’m here!”
The Three Major Chemical Radial Divisions
The Shallowest Layer of the Earth: The
Crust
• The crust is the most heterogeneous layer
in the Earth
• The crust is on average 33 km thick for
continents and 10 km thick beneath
oceans; however it varies from just a few
km to over 70 km globally.
• The boundary between the crust and the
mantle is mostly chemical. The crust and
mantle have different compositions.
• This boundary is referred to as the
Mohorovičić discontinuity or “Moho”. It
was discovered in 1910 by the Croatian
seismologist Andrija Mohorovičić
Middle Earth: The Mantle
• Earth’s mantle exists from the bottom of the crust to a depth of 2891 km
(radius of 3480 km) – Gutenberg discontinuity
• It is further subdivided into:
1. The uppermost mantle
(crust to 400 km depth)
2. The transition zone
(400 – 700 km depth)
3. The mid-mantle
(700 to ~2650 km depth)
4. The lowermost mantle
(~2650 – 2891 km depth)
• The uppermost mantle is composed dominantly of olivine; lesser
components include pyroxene, enstatite, and garnet
Earth’s Core
• Owing to the great pressure inside the Earth the Earth’s core is actually
freezing as the Earth gradually cools.
• The boundary between the liquid outer core and the solid inner core occurs
at a radius of about 1220 km – Lehman discontinuity, after Inge Lehman
from Denmark.
• The boundary between the mantle and outer core is sharp.
• The change in density across the core-mantle boundary is greater than that
at the Earth’s surface!
• The viscosity of the outer core is similar to that of water, it flows
kilometers per year and creates the Earth’s magnetic field.
• The outer core is mostly an alloy of iron and nickel in liquid form.
• As the core freezes latent heat is released; this heat causes the outer core to
convect and so generates a magnetic field.
EARTH’S LAYERED STRUCTURE
Litosphere
• The lithosphere is the uppermost 50-100 km
of the Earth. There is not a strict boundary
between the lithosphere and the
asthenosphere as there is between the crust
and mantle. It also consists of both crust and
upper parts of mantle and behaves rigidly,
like a solid, over very long time periods.
Astenosphere
• The asthenosphere exists between depths of
100-200 km. It is the weakest part of the
mantle. It is a solid over short time scales,
but behaves like a fluid over millions of
years. The asthenosphere decouples the
lithosphere (tectonic plates) from the rest of
the mantle.
Tectonic forces
• The interior of the Earth is dynamic – it
cools down and thus provides energy for
convective currents in the outer core and in
the astenosphere.
Convection
• Convection in the astenosphere enables
tectonic processes – PLATE TECTONIC
Tectonic plates
• Tectonic plates are large parts of litosphere
‘floating’ on the astenosphere. Convective
currents move them around with velocities of
several cm/year.These plates interact with
one another in three basic ways: They
collide, They move away from each other,
They slide one past another
Interacting plates
• Collision leads to SUBDUCTION of one
plate under another. Mountain ranges may
also be formed (Himalayas, Alps...). It
produces strong and sometimes very deep
earthquakes (up to 700 km). Volcanoes also
occur there. Plates moving away from each
other produce RIDGES between them
(spreading centres). The earthquakes are
generally weaker than in the case of
subduction. Plates moving past each other do
so along the TRANSFORM FAULTS.
How earthquakes occur?
Earthquakes occur at FAULTS. Fault is a weak zone separating two
geological blocks. Tectonic forces cause the blocks to move relative one to
another.
Longitudinal waves: Surface waves: Rayleigh and
Love waves
• They are faster than transversal
waves and thus arrive first. • Their amplitude diminishes with
the depth.
• The particles oscillate in the
direction of spreading of the • They have large amplitudes and
wave. are slower than body waves.
• Compressional waves. P-waves • These are dispersive waves
(large periods are faster).
Transversal waves:
• The particles oscillate in the
direction perpendicular to the
spreading direction.
• Shear waves – they do not
propagate through solids (e.g.
through the outer core). S-waves
Seismographs
• Seismographs are devices that record
ground motion during earthquakes.
• The first seismographs were
constructed at the very end of the 19th
century in Italy and Germany.
• Modern digital broadband
seismographs are capable of recording
almost the whole seismological
spectrum (50 Hz – 300 s).
• ]Their resolution of 24 bits (high
dynamic range) allows for precise
recording of small quakes, as well as
unsaturated registration of the largest
ones.
Observational Seismology
• We are now equipped to start recording and locating eawerthquakes.
For that need a seismic network of as many stations as possible.
Minimal number of stations needed to locate the position of an
earthquake epicentre is three.
• Locating Earthquakes
• Magnitude determination
• Macroseismology
• Locating Earthquakes
To locate an earthquake we need precise readings of the times
when P- and S-waves arrive at a number of seismic stations. Accurate
absolute timing (with a precission of 0.01 s) is essential in seismology!
Knowing the difference in arrival times of the two waves, and knowing
their velocity, we may calculate the distance of the epicentre. This is
done using the travel-time curves which show how long does it take for
P- and S-waves to reach some epicentral distance.
• Magnitude determination
Besides the position of the epicentre and the depth of focus, the
earthquake magnitude is another - defining element of each earthquake.
Magnitude (defined by Charles Richter in 1935) is proportional to the
amount of energy released from the focus. Magnitude is calculated from
the amplitudes of ground motion as measured from the seismograms. You
also need to know the epicentral distance to take attenuation into
account.
• Macroseismology
MACROSEISMOLOGY deals with effects of earthquakes on
humans, animals, objects and surroundings. The data are collected by
field trips into the shaken area, and/or by questionaires sent there. The
effects are then expressed as earthquake INTENSITY at each of the
studied places. Intensity is graded according to macroseismic scales –
Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (MCS), Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK),
Modified Mercalli (MM), European Macroseismic Scale (EMS).
This is a subjective method. European Macroseismic Scale
(EMS 98)
EUROPEAN MACROSEISMIC SCALE (EMS 98)
Engineering Seismology
• Earthquakes are the only natural disasters that are mostly harmless to
humans! The only danger comes from buildings designed not to withstand
the largest possible earthquakes in the area.
• Engineering seismology provides civil engineers parameters they need in
order to construct seismically safe and sound structures. It is a bridge
between seismology and earthquake engineering. Most common input
parameters are:
- maximal expected horizontal ground acceleration (PGA)
- maximal expected horizontal ground velocity (PGV)
- maximal expected horizontal ground displacement (PGD)
- response spectra (SA)
- maximal expected intensity (Imax)
- duration of significant shaking
- dominant period of shaking.
• Engineering seismologists mostly use records of ground acceleration
obtained by strong-motion accelerographs.
Soil amplification
Amplification of seismic waves in shallow soil deposits may
cause extensive damage even far away from the epicentre. It depends on:
• Thickness of soil above the base rock,
• Density and elastic properties of soil,
• Frequency of shaking,
• The strength of earthquake.
HYDROLOGY
HYDROLOGY
the branch of science concerned with the properties of the
earth's water, especially its movement in relation to land. It is the
scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on
Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources and
environmental watershed sustainability.

The Water Cycle

BRANCHES OF HYDROLOGY
• Chemical hydrology
is the study of the chemical characteristics of water.
• Ecohydrology
is the study of interactions between organisms and the
hydrologic cycle.
• Hydrogeology
is the study of the presence and movement of groundwater.
• Hydroinformatics
is the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and
water resources applications.
• Hydrometeorology
is the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and
water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere.
• Isotope hydrology
is the study of the isotopic signatures of water.
• Surface hydrology
is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near
Earth's surface. Drainage basin management covers water storage, in the
form of reservoirs, and floods protection.
• Water quality
includes the chemistry of water in rivers and lakes, both of
pollutants and natural solutes.
ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA
FOG
Fog is a cloud on Earth’s surface. It is visible condensation in the
atmosphere. Fog varies in depth from a few feet to many hundreds of feet.
Its density is variable resulting in visibility from several miles to near
zero. It differs from rain or mist in that its water or ice particles are more
minute and suspended and do not fall earthward.
• Radiation Fog - which generally occurs as ground fog, is caused by
the radiation cooling of Earth’s surface.
• Advection Fog - Advection fog is the name given to fog produced by
air in motion or to fog formed in one place and transported to another
• Sea Fog - Sea fog is always of the advection type and occurs when the
wind brings moist, warm air over a colder ocean current.
• Land Advection Fog - Land advection fog is found near large bodies
of water; that is, along seacoasts and large lakes.
• Steam Fog - Steam fog occurs within air masses; but, unlike other
air-mass fogs, which are formed by the cooling of the air temperature
to the dew point, steam fog is caused by saturation of the air through
evaporation of water. It occurs when cold air moves over warm water.
• Upslope Fogs - Upslope fog is caused by adiabatic cooling of rising
air. It is formed when moist, warm air is forced up a slope by the
wind.
• Frontal Fog - Frontal fog is another hazard, which must be added to
the list of weather problems associated with fronts.
DEW
Dew does not actually fall; rather the moisture condenses from air
that is in direct contact with the cool surface.
• RIME (RIME ICING) - Rime is a white or milky opaque granular
deposit of ice. It occurs when supercooled water droplets strike an
object at temperatures at or below freezing.
• GLAZE (CLEAR ICING) - Glaze is a coating of ice, generally clear
and smooth. It occurs when supercooled water droplets deposited by
rain, drizzle, fog, or condensed water vapor strike an exposed object at
temperatures at or below freezing.
• DRIFTING AND BLOWING SNOW - Drifting and blowing snow
are the result of snow particles being raised from the ground by the
wind.
• SPRAY AND BLOWING SPRAY - Spray and blowing spray occurs
when the wind is of such force that it lifts water droplets from the
water surface (normally the wave crests) and carries them into the air.
TORNADOES
A tornado is an extremely violent whirling storm with a small
diameter, usually a quarter of a mile or less.
WATERSPOUTS
Waterspouts are tornadoes that form over ocean areas. This
phenomenon consists of two types: tornado in origin and locally induced
Tornado Type - These waterspouts form at the cloud and extend
down to the surface. They originate from severe convective cells
associated with a cold front, squall line, or large convective cluster.
Local Type - These waterspouts originate from convective clouds
of moderate vertical extent which form a line or a small cluster .
LITHOMETEORS
Lithometeors comprise a class of atmospheric phenomena of which
dry haze and smoke are the most common examples.
HAZE
Haze is composed of suspended dust or salt particles that are so small
that they cannot be individually felt or seen by the unaided eye.
SMOKE
Smoke is fine ash particles suspended in the atmosphere.
DUST
Dust is finely divided solid matter uniformly distributed in the air.
SAND
Fine particles of sand picked up from the surface by the wind and
blown about in clouds or sheets constitute a troublesome lithometeor in some
regions.
DUST DEVILS
Dust devils, or whirling, dust-laden air, are caused by intense
solar radiation, which sets up a steep lapse rate near the ground.
PHOTOMETEORS
Photometeors are any of a number of atmospheric phenomena
that appear as luminous patterns in the sky.
LIGHT
Light, acting in conjunction with some of the elements of the
atmosphere, produces a variety of atmospheric phenomena.
Sources of Light
There are two sources of light—natural and artificial.
Wavelength
The wavelength of a light wave is the distance from the crest of one
wave to the crest of the following wave.
• REFLECTION
The term reflected light refers to those light waves that are
neither transmitted nor absorbed but are thrown back from the surface of the
medium they encounter.
• REFRACTION
The change of direction that occurs when a ray of light
passes at an oblique angle (less than 90°) from one transparent substance into
another substance of different density is called refraction.
ATMOSPHERIC OPTICAL PHENOMENA
ATMOSPHERIC LAWS
Atmospheric optical phenomena are those phenomena of the
atmosphere that can be explained in terms of optical laws. Some of the
atmospheric elements, such as moisture, serve as a prism to break a light
source down into its various component colors. The resulting phenomena
can be spectacular as well as deceptive.
Halos
A halo is a luminous ring around the Sun or Moon.
Coronas
A corona is a luminous ring surrounding the Sun (solar) or Moon
(lunar) and is formed by diffraction of light by water droplets.
Rainbows
The rainbow is a circular arc seen opposite the Sun, usually
exhibiting all the primary colors, with red on the outside.
Fogbows
A fogbow is a whitish circular arc seen opposite the Sun in fog.
Mirages - Mirages are images of objects that are made to appear
displaced from their normal positions because of refraction. Three types
of mirages:
• Inferior Mirage.—The inferior mirage, the most common of the
three, appears as a mirrored image below the object being viewed
by the observer
• SUPERIOR MIRAGE.—In the superior mirage, the mirrored
image appears above the object being viewed.
• Lateral Mirage.—Since the positions of above and below
represent superior and inferior mirages respectively, the lateral
mirage then appears to the side of the object being viewed.
Looming
Looming is similar to a mirage in that it brings into view objects
that are over a distant horizon.
Scintillation
Scintillation is caused by variations in atmospheric density near
the horizon.
Crepuscular Rays
Crepuscular rays are another common phenomena.
Electrometeors
An electrometeor is a visible or audible manifestation of
atmospheric electricity.
THUNDERSTORMS
The thunderstorm represents one of the most formidable weather
hazards in temperate and tropical zones.

• Formation: A certain combination of atmospheric conditions is

necessary for the formation of a thunderstorm.
• Structure: The fundamental structural element of the
thunderstorm is the unit of convective circulation known as the
convective cell.