Polarization Light Intro

Polarization of Light:
from Basics to Instruments

(in less than 100 slides)
N. Manset
CFHT
Introduction
• Part I: Different polarization states of light

• Part II: Stokes parameters, Mueller matrices
• Part III: Optical components for polarimetry
• Part IV: Polarimeters
• Part V: ESPaDOnS
N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 2

Part I: Different polarization
states of light
• Light as an electromagnetic wave

• Mathematical and graphical descriptions of
polarization
• Linear, circular, elliptical light
• Polarized, unpolarized light

Part I: Polarization states
Light as an electromagnetic
wave
Light is a transverse wave,

an electromagnetic wave

Mathematical description of
the EM wave
Light wave that propagates in the z direction:

 
E x (z, t )  E 0x cos( kz -  t) x
 
E y ( z, t )  E 0y cos( kz -  t   ) y

Graphical representation of the

EM wave (I)
 
One can go from: E x (z, t )  E 0x cos( kz -  t) x
 
E y ( z, t )  E 0y cos( kz -  t   ) y
to the equation of an ellipse (using trigonometric
identities, squaring, adding):
2
 Ex   Ey 
2
E Ey
     2 x
cos  sin 2 
 
 E 0x   E 0y  E 0x E 0y

Graphical representation of the

EM wave (II)
An ellipse can be represented

by 4 quantities:
1. size of minor axis
2. size of major axis
3. orientation (angle)
4. sense (CW, CCW)
Light can be represented by 4 quantities...

Part I: Polarization states, linear polarization
Vertically polarized light

 
E x (z, t )  E 0x cos( kz -  t) x
 
E y ( z, t )  E 0y cos( kz -  t   ) y
If there is no amplitude in x (E0x = 0), there is
only one component, in y (vertical).

Polarization at 45º (I)

 
E x (z, t )  E 0x cos( kz -  t) x
 
E y ( z, t )  E 0y cos( kz -  t   ) y
If there is no phase difference (=0) and

E0x = E0y, then Ex = Ey

Polarization at 45º (II)

Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization
Circular polarization (I)

 
E x (z, t )  E 0x cos( kz -  t) x
 
E y ( z, t )  E 0y cos( kz -  t   ) y
If the phase difference is = 90º and E0x = E0y

then: Ex / E0x = cos  , Ey / E0y = sin 
and we get the equation of a circle:
2
 Ex   Ey 
2
      cos2  sin 2  1
E 
 E 0x   0y 

Circular polarization (II)

Circular polarization (III)

Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization... see it now?
Circular polarization (IV)

Part I: Polarization states, elliptical polarization
Elliptical polarization
• Linear + circular polarization = elliptical polarization

Part I: Polarization states, unpolarized light
Unpolarized light
(natural light)

A cool Applet
Electromagnetic Wave
Location: http://www.uno.edu/~jsulliva/java/EMWave.html

Part II: Stokes parameters and
Mueller matrices
• Stokes parameters, Stokes vector
• Stokes parameters for linear and circular
polarization
• Stokes parameters and polarization P
• Mueller matrices, Mueller calculus
• Jones formalism

Part II: Stokes parameters
Stokes parameters
A tiny itsy-bitsy little bit of history...
• 1669: Bartholinus discovers double refraction in calcite

• 17th – 19th centuries: Huygens, Malus, Brewster, Biot,
Fresnel and Arago, Nicol...
• 19th century: unsuccessful attempts to describe unpolarized
light in terms of amplitudes
• 1852: Sir George Gabriel Stokes took a very different
approach and discovered that polarization can be described in
terms of observables using an experimental definition

Stokes parameters (I)

The polarization ellipse is only valid at a given instant of time
(function of time):
2
 E x (t)   E y (t) 
2
E (t) E y (t)
     2 x
cos εsin 2 ε
 
 E0x (t)   E0y (t)  E0x (t) E0y (t)
To get the Stokes parameters, do a time average (integral over

time) and a little bit of algebra...

Stokes parameters (II)

described in terms of the electric field
E 2
0x E 2 2
0y   E 2
0x E   2E
2 2
0y 0x E0ycos ε   2E0x E0ysin ε 
2 2
The 4 Stokes parameters S0  I  E0x

2
 E0y
2
are:
S1  Q  E0x
2
 E0y
2
S2  U  2 E0x E0ycos ε
S3  V  2 E0x E0ysin ε

Stokes parameters (III)

described in geometrical terms
I  a2 
   2 
 Q   a cos 2  cos 2 

 U   a 2 cos 2  sin 2 
   
 a sin 2 
2 
  
V 

Part II: Stokes parameters, Stokes vectors
Stokes vector
The Stokes parameters can be arranged in a Stokes vector:
 I  E 2
 E 0y 
2
 intensity 
   0x
  
 Q   E 0x  E 0y   I0  I90 
2 2
 U    2 E E cos ε    I45  I135 

   0x 0y  
 
 V   2 E 0x E 0ysin ε   IRCP   ILCP 
 
• Linear polarization Q  0, U  0, V  0
• Circular polarization Q  0, U  0, V  0
• Fully polarized light I 2  Q2  U 2  V 2
• Partially polarized light I 2  Q2  U 2  V 2
• Unpolarized light QUV0
Pictorial representation of the

Stokes parameters



Part II: Stokes parameters, examples
Stokes vectors for linearly

polarized light
LHP light LVP light +45º light -45º light
1 1 1 1

       
1
I0     1  0
I0   0
I0   I0  
0 0 1 1
       
 0 0  0 0
Part II: Stokes parameters, examples
Stokes vectors for circularly

polarized light
RCP light LCP light
1 1
   
 0 0
I0   I0  
0 0
   
1  1
(Q,U) to (P,)
In the case of linear polarization (V=0):
Q2  U 2 
1 U
P arctan  
I 2 Q
Q  P cos 2 U  P sin 2

Part II: Stokes parameters, Mueller matrices
Mueller matrices
If light is represented by Stokes vectors, optical components are
then described with Mueller matrices:
[output light] = [Muller matrix] [input light]
 I'   m11 m12 m13 m14  I 

    
 Q'   m21 m22 m23 m24  Q 
 U'    m m32 m33 m34  U 
   31  
 V'   m41 m42 m43 m44  V 
Mueller calculus (I)
Element 1 Element 2 Element 3

M1 M2 M3
I’ = M3 M2 M1 I

Mueller calculus (II)

Mueller matrix M’ of an optical component with
Mueller matrix M rotated by an angle :
M’ = R(- ) M R() with:
1 0 0 0
 
 0 cos 2 sin 2 0
R( )  
0  sin 2 cos 2 0
 
0 0 0 1

Part II: Stokes parameters, Jones formalism, not that important here...
Jones formalism
Stokes vectors and Mueller matrices cannot describe
interference effects. If the phase information is important (radio-
astronomy, masers...), one has to use the Jones formalism, with
complex vectors and Jones matrices:
• Jones vectors to describe the • Jones matrices to represent
polarization of light: optical components:

  E x (t)   j11 j12 
J (t)     J   
 E (t) 
 y   j21 j22 
BUT: Jones formalism can only deal with 100% polarization...

Part III: Optical components
for polarimetry
• Complex index of refraction

• Polarizers
• Retarders

Part III: Optical components
Complex index of refraction

The index of refraction is actually a complex quantity:
m  n  ik
• real part • imaginary part
• optical path length, • absorption, attenuation,
refraction: speed of light extinction: depends on
depends on media media
• birefringence: speed of • dichroism/diattenuation:
light also depends on P also depends on P
Part III: Optical components, polarizers
Polarizers
Polarizers absorb one component of the
polarization but not the other.
The input is natural light, the output is polarized light (linear,
circular, elliptical). They work by dichroism, birefringence,
reflection, or scattering.

Wire-grid polarizers (I)

[dichroism]
• Mainly used in the IR and longer
wavelengths
• Grid of parallel conducting wires with a
spacing comparable to the wavelength of
observation
• Electric field vector parallel to the wires is
attenuated because of currents induced in
the wires

Wide-grid polarizers (II)

[dichroism]

Dichroic crystals
[dichroism]
Dichroic crystals absorb one

polarization state over the other
one.
Example: tourmaline.

Part III: Optical components, polarizers – Polaroids, like in sunglasses!
Polaroids
[dichroism]
Made by heating and stretching a sheet of PVA laminated to
a supporting sheet of cellulose acetate treated with iodine
solution (H-type polaroid). Invented in 1928.

Crystal polarizers (I)

[birefringence]
• Optically anisotropic crystals
• Mechanical model:
• the crystal is anisotropic, which means that
the electrons are bound with different
‘springs’ depending on the orientation
• different ‘spring constants’ gives different
propagation speeds, therefore different indices
of refraction, therefore 2 output beams

Crystal polarizers (II)

[birefringence]
isotropic anisotropic
crystal
crystal
(sodium (calcite)
chloride)
The 2 output beams are polarized (orthogonally).

Crystal polarizers (IV)

[birefringence]
• Crystal polarizers used as:
• Beam displacers,
• Beam splitters,
• Polarizers,
• Analyzers, ...
• Examples: Nicol prism, Glan-
Thomson polarizer, Glan or Glan-
Foucault prism, Wollaston prism,
Thin-film polarizer, ...

Mueller matrices of polarizers

(I)
• (Ideal) linear polarizer at angle :
 1 cos 2χ sin 2χ 0
 
1  cos 2χ cos2 2χ sin 2χ cos 2χ 0
2  sin 2χ sin 2χ cos 2χ sin 2 2χ 0
 
 0 0 0 0

Mueller matrices of polarizers

(II)
Linear (±Q) Linear (±U) Circular (±V)

polarizer at 0º: polarizer at 0º : polarizer at 0º :
 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0  1
     
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.5  0.5 
0
0.5 
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
     
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

Mueller calculus with a

polarizer
Input light: unpolarized --- output light: polarized
 I'  1 0 1 0  I  I
      
 Q'  0 0 0 0  0  0
 U'   0.5   1 0 1 
0 0    0.5  
-I
      
 V'  0 0 0 0  0  0
Total output intensity: 0.5 I

Part III: Optical components, retarders
Retarders
• In retarders, one polarization gets ‘retarded’, or delayed,
with respect to the other one. There is a final phase
difference between the 2 components of the polarization.
Therefore, the polarization is changed.
• Most retarders are based on birefringent materials (quartz,
mica, polymers) that have different indices of refraction
depending on the polarization of the incoming light.

Half-Wave plate (I)

• Retardation of ½ wave
or 180º for one of the
polarizations.
• Used to flip the linear

polarization or change
the handedness of
circular polarization.

Half-Wave plate (II)

Quarter-Wave plate (I)

• Retardation of ¼ wave or 90º for one of the
polarizations
• Used to convert linear polarization to elliptical.

Quarter-Wave plate (II)

• Special case: incoming light polarized at 45º with respect to
the retarder’s axis
• Conversion from linear to circular polarization (vice versa)

Mueller matrix of retarders (I)

• Retarder of retardance  and position angle :
1 0 0 0 
 
 0 G  H cos4ψ H sin4 ψ  sinτ sin2 ψ 
0 H sin4 ψ G  H cos4ψ sinτ cos2ψ 
 
 0 sinτ sin2 ψ  sinτ cos2ψ cosτ 
with : G  1  cosτ  and H  1  cosτ 
1 1
2 2

Mueller matrix of retarders (II)
• Half-wave oriented at 0º • Half-wave oriented at

or 90º ±45º
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
   
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
k
1 0
k
0 0 1 0  
0 0

 
0 0 0  1 0 0 0  1

Mueller matrix of retarders

(III)
• Quarter-wave oriented at • Quarter-wave oriented at
0º ±45º
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
   
0 1 0 0 0 0 0  1
k
1 0
k
0 0 0 1 
0 0

 
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

Mueller calculus with a

retarder
• Input light linear polarized (Q=1)
• Quarter-wave at +45º
• Output light circularly polarized (V=1)
 I'  1 0 0 0  1  1
      
 Q'  0 0 0  1 1   0
 U'   k  0 0 1 0 0    k 
0
      
 V'  0 1 0 0  0  1
(Back to polarizers, briefly)

Circular polarizers
• Input light: unpolarized ---
Output light: circularly polarized
• Made of a linear polarizer
glued to a quarter-wave plate
oriented at 45º with respect to
one another.

Achromatic retarders (I)

• Retardation depends on wavelength
• Achromatic retarders: made of 2 different materials with
opposite variations of index of refraction as a function of wavelength
• Pancharatnam achromatic retarders: made of 3

identical plates rotated w/r one another
• Superachromatic retarders: 3 pairs of quartz and MgF2

plates

Achromatic retarders (II)
=140-220º
not very
achromatic!
= 177-183º
much better!

Retardation on total internal

reflection
• Total internal
reflection
produces
retardation (phase
shift)
• In this case, retardation is very achromatic
since it only depends on the refractive index
• Application: Fresnel rhombs
Fresnel rhombs
• Quarter-wave and half-wave rhombs are

achieved with 2 or 4 reflections

Other retarders
• Soleil-Babinet: variable retardation to better than 0.01 waves
• Nematic liquid crystals... Liquid crystal
variable retarders... Ferroelectric liquid
crystals... Piezo-elastic modulators...
Pockels and Kerr cells...

Part IV: Polarimeters
• Polaroid-type polarimeters
• Dual-beam polarimeters

Part IV: Polarimeters, polaroid-type
Polaroid-type polarimeter
for linear polarimetry (I)
• Use a linear polarizer (polaroid) to measure
linear polarization ... [another cool applet]
Location: http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/applets/lens.html
• Polarization percentage and position angle:

I max  I min
P
I max  I min

  ( I  I max ) 
for linear polarimetry (II)
• Move the polaroid to 2 positions, 0º and 45º

(to measure Q, then U)
• Advantage: very simple to make

• Disadvantage: half of the light is cut out
• Other disadvantages: non-simultaneous
measurements, cross-talk...
for circular polarimetry
• Polaroids are not sensitive to circular
polarization, so convert circular polarization
to linear first, by using a quarter-wave plate
• Polarimeter now uses a quarter-wave plate
and a polaroid
• Same disadvantages as before

Part IV: Polarimeters, dual-beam type
Dual-beam polarimeters
Principle
• Instead of cutting out one polarization and keeping
the other one (polaroid), split the 2 polarization
states and keep them both
• Use a Wollaston prism as an analyzer
• Disadvantages: need 2 detectors (PMTs, APDs) or
an array; end up with 2 ‘pixels’ with different gain
• Solution: rotate the Wollaston or keep it fixed and
use a half-wave plate to switch the 2 beams

Switching beams
• Unpolarized light: two beams have
identical intensities whatever the prism’s
position if the 2 pixels have the same gain


• To compensate different gains, switch the
2 beams and average the 2 measurements
Switching beams by rotating the prism
rotate by
180º

Switching beams using a ½ wave plate
Rotated
by 45º

Part IV: Polarimeters, example of circular polarimeter
A real circular polarimeter

Semel, Donati, Rees (1993)
Quarter-wave plate, rotated at -45º and +45º
Analyser: double calcite crystal


free from gain (g) and atmospheric
transmission () variation effects
• First measurement with quarter-wave plate at -45º, signal
l r
S
in the (r)ight and (l)eft beams: 1 , S1
• Second measurement with quarter-wave plate at +45º,

l r
S
signal in the (r)ight and (l)eft beams: 2 , S 2
• Measurements of the signals:

S1l  g l1 ( I1  V1 ) S1r  g r1 ( I1  V1 )
S2l  g l2 ( I 2  V2 ) S2r  g r2 ( I 2  V2 )


free from gain and atmospheric
transmission variation effects
• Build a ratio of measured signals which is free of gain and
variable atmospheric transmission effects:
1  S1l S2r  1 I 2V1  I1V2

F   l r  1 
4  S2 S1  2 I1 I 2  I 2V1  I1V2  V1V2
1  V1 V2 
F     for V  1
2  I1 I 2 
average of the 2 measurements
Part IV: Polarimeters, summary
Polarimeters - Summary
• 2 types:
– polaroid-type: easy to make but ½ light is lost, and affected
by variable atmospheric transmission
– dual-beam type: no light lost but affected by gain
differences and variable transmission problems
• Linear polarimetry:
– analyzer, rotatable  2 positions minimum
– analyzer + half-wave plate
• Circular polarimetry:  1 position minimum
– analyzer + quarter-wave plate

Part V: ESPaDOnS
Optical components of the
polarimeter part :
• Wollaston prism: analyses the
polarization and separates the 2
(linear!) orthogonal polarization
states
• Retarders, 3 Fresnel rhombs:
– Two half-wave plates to switch the
beams around
– Quarter-wave plate to do circular
polarimetry
Part V: ESPaDOnS, circular polarimetry mode
ESPaDOnS: circular
polarimetry
• Fixed quarter-wave rhomb
• Rotating bottom half-wave, at 22.5º
increments
• Top half-wave rotates continuously at about
1Hz to average out linear polarization when
measuring circular polarization

ESPaDOnS: circular
polarimetry of circular polarization
• analyzer • half-wave • quarter-
 • 22.5º positions
wave
• fixed
• flips
 polarization
• gain,
• circular
to linear
transmission
ESPaDOnS: circular polarimetry of

(unwanted) linear polarization
• analyzer
• circular part • half-wave • quarter- • Add a
goes through wave rotating
not analyzed
• 22.5º
half-wave
and adds same positions • fixed
to “spread
intensities to out” the
both beams
• gain, • linear to
transmission elliptical unwanted
• linear part is signal
analyzed!
Part V: ESPaDOnS, linear polarimetry
ESPaDOnS: linear polarimetry
• Half-Wave rhombs positioned at 22.5º

increments
• Quarter-Wave fixed

Part V: ESPaDOnS, linear polarimetry
ESPaDOnS: linear polarimetry

• Half-Wave rhombs positioned as 22.5º
increments
– First position gives Q

– Second position gives U 
– Switch beams for gain and atmosphere effects
• Quarter-Wave fixed

Part V: ESPaDOnS, summary
ESPaDOnS - Summary
• ESPaDOnS can do linear and circular
polarimetry (quarter-wave plate)
• Beams are switched around to do the
measurements, compensate for gain and
atmospheric effects
• Fesnel rhombs are very achromatic

Credits for pictures and movies
• Christoph Keller’s home page – his 5 lectures
http://www.noao.edu/noao/staff/keller/
• “Basic Polarisation techniques and devices”, Meadowlark Optics Inc.
http://www.meadowlark.com/
• Optics, E. Hecht and Astronomical Polarimetry, J. Tinbergen
• Planets, Stars and Nebulae Studied With Photopolarimetry, T.
Gehrels
• Circular polarization movie
http://www.optics.arizona.edu/jcwyant/JoseDiaz/Polarization-Circular.htm
• Unpolarized light movie

http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/polarization/polarizationII.html
• Reflection of wave http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/waves/fix.html

• ESPaDOnS web page and documents

References/Further reading
On the Web
• Very short and quick introduction, no equation
http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/~manset/PolarIntro_eng.html
• Easy fun page with Applets, on polarizing filters
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/polarization/polarizationI.html
• Polarization short course
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/light/u12l1e.html
• “Instrumentation for Astrophysical
Spectropolarimetry”, a series of 5 lectures given at the
IAC Winter School on Astrophysical Spectropolarimetry,
November 2000 –
http://www.noao.edu/noao/staff/keller/lectures/index.html

Polarization basics
• Polarized Light, D. Goldstein – excellent book,

easy read, gives a lot of insight, highly
recommended
• Undergraduate textbooks, either will do:
– Optics, E. Hecht
– Waves, F. S. Crawford, Berkeley Physics Course vol. 3

Astronomy, easy/intermediate
• Astronomical Polarimetry, J. Tinbergen –
instrumentation-oriented
• La polarisation de la lumière et l'observation
astronomique, J.-L. Leroy – astronomy-oriented
• Planets, Stars and Nebulae Studied With
Photopolarimetry, T. Gehrels – old but classic
• 3 papers by K. Serkowski – instrumentation-oriented

Astronomy, advanced
• Introduction to Spectropolarimetry, J.C.

del Toro Iniesta – radiative transfer – ouch!
• Astrophysical Spectropolarimetry,
Trujillo-Bueno et al. (eds) – applications to
astronomy

Polarization Light Intro

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Polarization of Light:

from Basics to Instruments

• Part I: Different polarization states of light

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 2

• Light as an electromagnetic wave

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 3

Light is a transverse wave,

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 4

Light wave that propagates in the z direction:

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 5

Graphical representation of the

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 6

Graphical representation of the

An ellipse can be represented

Light can be represented by 4 quantities...

Vertically polarized light

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 8

Polarization at 45º (I)

If there is no phase difference (=0) and

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 9

Polarization at 45º (II)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 10

Circular polarization (I)

If the phase difference is = 90º and E0x = E0y

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 11

Circular polarization (II)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 12

Circular polarization (III)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 13

Circular polarization (IV)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 14

• Linear + circular polarization = elliptical polarization

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 15

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 16

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 17

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 18

• 1669: Bartholinus discovers double refraction in calcite

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 19

Stokes parameters (I)

To get the Stokes parameters, do a time average (integral over

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 20

Stokes parameters (II)

The 4 Stokes parameters S0  I  E0x

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 21

Stokes parameters (III)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 22

 U    2 E E cos ε    I45  I135 

Pictorial representation of the

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 24

Stokes vectors for linearly

1 1 1 1

Stokes vectors for circularly

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 27

 I'   m11 m12 m13 m14  I 

Mueller calculus (I)

Element 1 Element 2 Element 3

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 29

Mueller calculus (II)

M’ = R(- ) M R() with:

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 30

BUT: Jones formalism can only deal with 100% polarization...

• Complex index of refraction

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 32