Water Supply

By Melese T.
 Presentation Outlines
• Definition of terms
• Importance of water
• Global occurrence of water
• Property of water
• Impurity of water
• Water-associated diseases
Terms commonly used in water supply
• Aquifer:an underground zone or layer, which is a
relatively good source of water. It is a rock
formation that bears and yields water when
penetrated by wells.
• Confined water: groundwater held between two
layers of impermeable rock.
• Eye of the spring: opening where the water
comes out of the earth.
• Free water; groundwater which can move
without hindrance in response to the force of
gravity.
Terms commonly used in water supply
conti….
• Palatable water: water that is pleasant to drink
because its taste is good&physically looks pure
but it may not be safe to drink.
• Pollution: the presence of matter whose nature,
location, or quantity produces undefined effects.
• Potable:safe for drinking, free from pathogens
which are introduced to the water through feces,
dirty containers, etc.
• Raw water:water that has not been purified.
• Turbidity:disturbed, muddy appearance of water.
 Sources of drinking water
• The sources of drinking water are classified as:
– Rainwater
– Surface water
• Lakes
• Rivers
• ponds
– Groundwater
• Springs
• Wells

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 Rainwater
• Rainwater can be used in areas where there are no
alternative sources of water.
• The term rainwater harvesting is sometimes used.
– It simply means collecting, or harvesting, rainwater
as it runs off from hard surfaces such as rooftops and
storing it in a tank or cistern
• The main advantage of rainwater is that it is free.
• It is fairly reliable though obviously dependent on the
amount of rain that falls.
• It does not usually require pumps or pipes and is
available at the doorstep.
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 Rainwater source protection
• To protect the water, various precautions are
needed.
• The tank must be completely covered and well
maintained.
• The roof and gutters should be cleaned regularly,
especially before the start of the wet season.
• It may be necessary to divert the first rainwater
away from the tank so the dust and dirt is washed
away.
• Leaves and other larger debris can be prevented by
placing a mesh screen between the guttering and
the pipe that leads to the tank.
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 Surface water
• Surface water supplies are taken from rivers, lakes or
ponds.
• Surface water can provide a consistent and
manageable source of water.
• It is subject to greater risk of contamination than
groundwater and therefore usually requires
treatment.
• Contamination is most likely to be with
microbiological pathogens from human and animal
excreta.
• There is also the possibility of accidental or
deliberate pollution by industries or the agricultural
community. 8
 Groundwater
• Groundwater is water found beneath the ground
surface held in the spaces within porous soil and
rock.
• Groundwater can be obtained from springs, or
wells.
• A borehole is a particular type of well with a narrow
shaft.
• Usually a drilling rig is needed to drill (bore) the
hole into the rock.
• The depth that water is taken from and the types of
rock it has passed through are important factors
that affect the quality of the groundwater.
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 Cont.…..
• Groundwater, particularly from deep sources, may
provide water of good microbiological quality.
• This is because bacteria, protozoa, viruses and
helminthes are filtered from the water as it passes
through the layers of soil and rock into the
groundwater.
• Groundwater sources are therefore preferable to
surface water sources.
• Groundwater can contain chemical contaminants,
such as arsenic, fluorides and nitrates.

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 Springs
• A spring occurs at the point where the boundary
between a permeable layer of underground rock
and an impermeable layer reaches the ground
surface.
• Rainwater percolates (trickles down) through the
soil into permeable layers of subsoil or underground
rock.
• A spring may vary in volume and contamination
levels according to the amount of rainfall.

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 Cont….
• Springs may be classified as:
1. Surface, intermittent or seasonal spring:
– These are springs which outcrop at a point
higher in the groundwater body than the
impermeable stratum in the ground formation.
– These are in fact seepages from the subsoil or
through cracks or faults in the rock formation.
– These springs are usually not reliable
– Drying up during drier seasons and appearing
again during or after the rainy seasons.

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 Cont….
2. Mainsprings:
– These flow out of the ground after the infiltration
water has reached an impermeable stratum in the
rock layers.
Such springs are sometimes known as gravity springs
3. Thermal or hot springs:
– Are springs of water which have been heated before
they reach the surface of the ground.
Example:-
– “Filowha” of Addis Ababa
– Wondogenet in the Southern Region
– Soderie in East Showa Zone 13
 Spring source protection
• A concrete waterproof protection box, also known as
a spring box, should be constructed over the spring to
prevent all actual and potential sources of
contamination.
• In some situations, if the flow is not constant, a
collection box may also be constructed in order to
ensure adequate water storage.
• The intake and overflow pipes should be screened to
prevent the entrance of small animals.
• Springs should be protected from flooding and
surface water pollution by constructing a deep
diversion ditch above and around the spring.
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 Wells
• The practice of obtaining water from wells is
common and well water is an important source of
supply in many developing countries like Ethiopia.
• A well should be located uphill from any possible
sources of pollution.
• Wells are classified based on the depths of the
water-bearing layers as follows:
• Shallow wells tap into water held in aquifers (layers
of water-bearing rock) above the first impermeable
layer.

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 Wells
• Deep wells obtain water from aquifers below at
least one impermeable layer.
• A deep well must be constructed so as to exclude
subsoil water and contamination from above.
• It should be watertight down to a point slightly
below the level of the deep supply.
• Artesian supply. Water in aquifers is sometimes
under pressure because of the surrounding
impermeable layers and this can cause the water to
flow upwards to the surface.

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 Protection of wells
Dug well
• A dug well is usually excavated by hand, but may be
dug by mechanical equipment.
• They are usually 90–180 cm in diameter and 4.5–10.5
m deep, depending on where the water-bearing layer
or groundwater is encountered.
• Wider and deeper dug wells are less common.
• the water level will be lower at times of drought and
the well may go dry.
• On the other hand, during heavy rain, dug wells are
susceptible to contamination by pathogens
• Hand pumps placed over the well need to be built so
the surrounding ground is covered and protected 17
Protected hand pump over a dug well.
The concrete surround and the fence to keep out animals

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 Contamination of well water
• The causes of bacterial contamination in a
well are usually due to:
– Lack of, or improper, disinfection of a well
following repair or construction.
– Failure to seal the space between the drill hole
and the outside of the casing.
– Failure to provide a tight sanitary seal at the
place where the pump line(s) passes through
the casing.
– Wastewater pollution caused by contaminated
water percolating through surrounding soil and
rocks into the well. 19
 Cont.…..
• At the time when a new well is constructed or
repairs are made to a well, pump or piping,
contamination from the work is possible.
• Therefore, it is important that the well, pump,
piping and associated structures should be regularly
disinfected using chlorine solution.
Tracing the source of contamination
• There are different methods which help to identify
a possible source of groundwater contamination.
• One method is sodium or potassium fluorescein.
• It can be detected by sight, taste or analysis.
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 Importance of Water
1. It is impossible to have a clean and sanitary
environment without water. Water is
necessary in promoting personal hygiene and
in cleaning the environment.
2. Water is essential for life.Man can live nearly
two months without food, but can live only 3
to 4days without water. In general 70% of
human body weight is water and a human
being needs two liters of water per day as
Minimum.
3. Most of the foods that man eats contain
water.
For example:
- Milk contains about 88% water.
- Egg contains about 66% water.
- Fish are 80% water.
- Potatoes are 75% water.
- Beef is 77% water
4. It is essential to run industries. Nearly all modern
industries are thirsty; they need water.
For example:
- It takes about 10 liters of water to produce one litter of
petrol.
-Itakes about 600 liters of water to produce 1kg of
woolen cloth.
- It takes about 3500 liters of water to produce 1kg of dry
cement.
5. Water is important for agriculture, animal
breeding and fishing.
6. Water is a valuable source of energy. It is
capable of generating hydroelectric power.
7. Water facilitates transportation and
navigation.
8. Water plays an important role in recreation
activities
 Global Occurrence of Water
• Over 72% of the earth's surface is covered by
water.
• Out of the 72% of the earth’s surface water,
97.2% in the ocean, which is unfit for human
consumption, b/c too salty.
• Desalination is too expensive to consider as a
water purification method.
Global occurrence of water conti…
• Another 2% of the remaining water lies frozen
in glaciers and in icecaps, and is mostly
unreachable.
• The usable portion is about 0.8% of the total,
which is neither evenly distributed nor
properly used.
 Some Important Properties of Water
Water exists in three states:
• as a liquid,
• as a solid (ice and snow), and
• as a gas (water vapor).
• It is a very stable chemical substance.
• Water has a maximum density of 1 at a
temperature of 4oC
• It boils at 100oCand freezes at 0oC
 Property of water conti…
• It is practically colorless, odorless and
tasteless.
• Any deviation from these physical
characteristics should be considered as an
indication of impurity.
 Property of water conti…
• Water has very high molecular attraction both
for its own molecules (cohesion) and
• For molecules of other substance (adhesion).
Because of this particular characteristic, a
large quantity of water is held in rock particles
and by plant roots in the soil.
• The PH of pure water is 7 (neutral).
 Impurities of Water
Sources of Impurities: Water gathers impurities
as it goes through its natural cycle.
It may pick up
• micro-organisms,
• dust,
• smoke, and
• gases from the atmosphere as it comes down
as rain, hail, etc.
 Impurities of water may be divided
into two classes:
1. Suspended Impurities
a. Micro-organisms
b. Suspended solids:
c. Algae:
There are different types of algae found in water:
i. Asterionell – Gives water an unpleasant odor.
ii. Spirogyra – Is a green scum found in small ponds and
polluted water. It grows in thread like groups. It is
slippery and non-toxic
iii. Anabaena – Is blue- green and occurs in fishponds,
pools, reservoir, and clogs filters.
 2. Dissolved Impurities
a. Gases:
b. Minerals:
c. Plant dyes:
 Water-associated Disease
Water-associated disease can be defined as a
disease in relation to water supply and
sanitation. There are four categories:
1. Waterborne disease
2. Water-washed disease
3. Water-based disease
4. Water-related disease
 1. Waterborne diseases
Several infections enteric or intestinal diseases are
transmitted through water contamination by fecal
matter.(It is water quality problems)
Pathogens excreted in water by an infected person
include
• bacteria,
• viruses,
• protozoa and
• parasitic warms.
Water acts only as a passive vehicle for the infectious
agent.
 2. Water-washed diseases
• These comprise diseases linked to a lack of
water for personal hygiene.(Quantity problems)
• ƒDermatological disease such as scabies
• ƒ Ophthalmic disease such as trachoma and
conjunctivitis
• ƒLouse-borne diseases such as relapsing fever.
 3. Water-based diseases
These are diseases caused by infectious agents
that are spread by contact with water.
Typical examples are schistosomiasis and
dracunculiasis (guinea worm).
 Prevetion of water-based disease

- Avoidance of contact with and ingestion of

contaminated water.
- Reduction of intermediate hosts (snail) by
using “endod” or Lemma toxin.
- Storage of water from 24 to 72 hours to kill the
cercaria(free swimming larval stage of g/worm
 4. Water-related diseases
These are diseases transmitted by insects that live
close to water. Infections are spread by
mosquitoes, flies and other insects that breed in
water or near it.
Example: Malaria, sleeping sickness, yellow fever,
onchocerciasis, etc.
To prevent this type of disease, making the water
unsuitable for breeding of insects is essential
 Advantages of groundwater:
A. It is comparatively likely to be free from
disease causing micro-organism
B. it can be used without further treatment if
properly protected and treated immediately
after the completion of construction work on
the well or other source where groundwater is
available.
 Advantage of Ground water
C. It is not exposed for evaporation and is used
as natural storage in underground.
D. It is most practical and economical to obtain
and distribute.
E. Groundwater can be found near a family or a
community.
 Disadvantages of groundwater
A. It needs pumping unless it comes from a
spring
B. It may contain excess amounts of dissolved
minerals.
C. It is poor in oxygen content.
 Occurrence of groundwater
Groundwater may be found in the form of
• perched water,
• free water or
• confined water
 WHO Guidelines
Number of E. coli Risk
Present (CFU/100 mL)
0 - 10 Reasonable Quality

11 - 100 Polluted

101 - 1,000 Dangerous

> 1,000 Very Dangerous

Source: WHO, 1997; Harvey, 2007

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Figure. Pathways of disease transmission and possible interventions ( “F diagram”).
(Tilley et al, 2014)

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Thank you