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ENGR 691 – 73: Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels
Lecture 03: Conservation Laws

Energy Equation and Critical Depth
Uniform Flow and Normal Depth
Yan Ding, Ph.D.

Research Assistant Professor, National Center for Computational
Hydroscience and Engineering (NCCHE), The University of Mississippi,
Old Chemistry 335, University, MS 38677
Phone: 915-8969; Email: ding@ncche.olemiss.edu
Course Notes by: Mustafa S. Altinakar and Yan Ding
Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 1

Outline
• Review of Reynolds Transport Theorem, Control Volume, and Conservation

Laws
• Concept of Energy in Open Channel Flow
• Energy equation for Open Channel Flow
• Specific Energy Curve and Specific Discharge Curve
• Critical Depth and its Computation
• Uniform Flow and Normal Depth
• Computation of Uniform Flow
• Friction Coefficient
• Chezy and Manning Coefficients

System vis-a-vis Control Volume
System: A particular collection of matter, which is identified and viewed as being
separated from everything external to the system by an imagined or real
closed boundary.
Control Volume: A volume in space through whose boundary matter, mass,

momentum, energy, and the like can flow. Its boundary is called a control
surface. The control volume may be of any useful size (finite and
infinitesimal) and shape; the control surface is a closed boundary.
Inertial Reference Frame: a frame of reference that describes time homogeneously

and space homogeneously, isotropically, and in a time independent manner.
All inertial frames are in a state of constant, rectilinear motion with respect
to one another; they are not accelerating.
Noninertial Reference Frame: a frame of reference that is under acceleration
Intensive Property: does not depend on the system size or the amount of material in
the system, e.g., B  M sys
Extensive Property: directly proportional to the system size or the amount of
B M sys
material in the system, e.g., b   1
M M sys sys
Conservation of Mass: The 1-D Continuity Equation (without free surface)
A Fluid System: All the matter (fluid) within control volume (I+R) at time t,
but within the control volume (R+O) at time t+dt
Control Volume: a volume fixed in space (between Section 1 and 2)
From the conservation of system mass:
(mI  mR )t  (mR  mO )t dt
(mI )t  (mO )t  dt
(mI )t  1 A1ds1 (mO )t  dt  2 A2 ds2
ds1 ds
1 A1   2 A2 2
dt dt
Then, Mass flowrate = 1 AV
1 1   2 A2V2
Volume flowrate Q  AV
Q  AV
1 1  A2V2 If density variation is negligible

The 1-D Continuity Equation for Open Channel Flows

Review: Derivation of Reynolds Transport Theorem
DBout

DBin
Time t Time t+Dt
System System
Control surface Control surface
B mt Quantity of property B present in the fluid system at time t
B mt  Dt Quantity of property B present in the fluid system at time t+Dt
B t Quantity of property B present in the control volume at time t
B t  Dt Quantity of property B present in the control volume at time t+Dt
DBin Quantity of property B which entered the control volume through the control surface during the time interval Dt
DBout Quantity of property B which left the control volume through the control surface during the time interval Dt
DBm Total change in the quantity of property B in the fluid system during the time interval Dt
DB Total change in the quantity of property B in the control volume during the time interval Dt

System
Control surface
DBout

B mt  Bt DBin
Time t Time t+Dt
At time t, the control volume and the fluid system coincide B mt  Bt
At time t+Dt, the quantity of B present in the system is Bmt  Dt  Bt  Dt  DBout  DBin
Total change in the quantity of property B in the fluid system during the time interval Dt DBm  Bmt  Dt  Bmt
Total change in the quantity of property B in the control volume during the time interval Dt DB  Bt  Dt  Bt
Combining the first three relationships the change in B in the fluid system is written as  
DBm  Bt  Dt  DBout  DBin  Bt
Divide both sides of equation by Dt 


DBm Bt  Dt  Bt

  
DBout  DBin DB DBout  DBin
 
 
Dt Dt Dt Dt Dt

DB m B DBout  DBin
At the limit Dt  0  
Dt t Dt
The material derivative operator “D/Dt” underlines the fact that the derivative applies to a fluid system moving in the coordinate
system (derivative contains both local and convective changes).

System
Control surface
DBout

B mt  Bt DBin
Time t Time t+Dt

DB m B DBout  DBin
The interpretation of different terms :  
Dt t Dt
rate of change   rate of change   net efflux of 
     
 of B in the    of B in the    B through the 
 fluid system  control volume  control surface
     
b b
Recalling the definition
of extensive property:
B   b dm   b  d Bm   d and B   d
M  s cv
D   DB  DB
Using this definition we can write: 
Dt s
b  d     b  d    out

t  cv  Dt
in

The integral on the right hand side is carried out over the control volume which is invariant in time. Therefore, one can bring the
derivative sign inside the integral
D   DB  DB  
DBout  DBin
  b   d  
Dt s t  cv
b  d    b d   out in
 Dt t Dt
 cv

System
Control surface
DBout
 V
V n

B B
m
t t
DBin
n
Time t Time t+Dt
(V  n)CS .out  0
Now let us take a look at the last term on the right hand side more
closely. We have already shown that the net efflux of property B    
through the control surface can be expressed as:

DBout  Dt   b V  dA   Dt   b V  n dA 
 cs.out   cs.out 
  (V  n)CS .in  0
Considering that dA  n dA
   

where n is the vector normal to the surface element dA DBin  Dt    b V  dA   Dt    b V  n dA 
 cs.in   cs.in 
We have, therefore

DBout  DBin
Dt
     
  b  V  n dA  (  b  V  n dA)   b  V  n dA   b  V  n dA   b  V  n dA    
CS .out CS .in CS .out CS .in CS

Finally
D

Dt s
b  d     b   d    b  V  n dA
t
  Reynolds transport theorem in its
general form
cv CS

Review: Conservation of Mass
 sv = System Volume
Recall : Reynolds Transport Theorem
D
Dt sv
b  d   
cv t b   d  CS b  V  n dA  cv = Control Volume
cs = Control Surface
B M sys
Extensive property : System Mass B  M sys Intensive property : b  1
M sys M sys

Reynolds Transport Theorem for mass
D
Dt   d  
CV t  d  CS  V  n dA 
SV
 M sys  Const .
0

Equation for Conservation of Mass  Continuity Equation 0  t  d    V  n  dA
CV CS

Equation for Conservation of Mass  Continuity Equation  
CV t  d  CS  V  n dA 
If the flow is steady or of uniform density (i.e. time 0   V  n  dA

derivative of density is equal to zero) CS

Review: Conservation of (Linear) Momentum

 
sv = System Volume
D
Recall : Reynolds Transport Theorem  b  d     b   d    b  V  n dA cv = Control Volume
Dt SV CV
t CS

 B 
M sys V
Extensive property : System Momentum B  M sys V Intensive property : b   V
M sys M sys

Reynolds Transport Theorem for Momentum
D
Dt  V  d 
t
  
V  d    V  V  n dA 
sv cv CS

 M sys Momentum of the fluid system
  
Recall from physics: The rate change of change of DM sys    dV dM V
 F F  Msys a  Msys 
sys
Momentum for a system is equal to the net sum of Dt dt dt
the external forces acting on the system. demonstration

Equation for Conservation of Momentum  Momentum Equation  F   t V   d   V  V  n  dA
CV CS
If the flow is steady (i.e. time derivatives are equal to zero)  F   V  V  n  dA

CS

Review: Conservation of Energy
 sv = System Volume
Recall : Reynolds Transport Theorem
D
Dt sv
b  d   
cv t b   d  CS b  V  n dA  cv = Control Volume
  2
 
B  E  E u  E p  E k    M sys u  M sys g z  M sys
V
Extensive property : System Total Energy
 2 
 
2
B E Eu Ep Ek V
Intensive property : b      e u  e p  e k  e  u  gz 
Msys Msys Msys Msys Msys 2

Reynolds Transport Theorem for Energy D
Dt  e  d 
t
 
 e   d    e  V  n dA
sv cv CS
 E sys
Recall from physics: The 1st principle of DE sys DQ DW

 
thermodynamics. Dt Dt Dt
Rate of change of Total Work
accomplished by the system
Rate of change of Total Energy of the System Rate of change of Net Heat Efflux (heat
entering and/or leaving the system)

Using the 1st equation of thermodynamics we can now write:

Equation for Conservation of Energy  Energy Equation
dQ dW
dt

dt cv t
 
   e   d    e  V  n dA
CS

dQ dW
dt

dt cv t

   eu  ep  ep   d     eu  ep  ep   V  n dA 
CS
 2
  2

  V V
dQ dW
 

dt cv t 
u  gz 
2 



 d    u  gz 

  V  n dA
2 
 
CS 
dt
   
The terms on the left side of the energy equation are written in a very general context. Let us now analyze these two
terms in more detail:
1.Rate of change of work done on the fluid contained in the system, dW/dt, and
2.Rate of change of heat energy in the fluid system, dQ/dt.

Rate of change of work, dW/dt
In a fluid system the work can be done in two ways: W  Ws  Wf
Work due to a mechanical device (shaft) Work done by the flow of fluid, i.e. pressure forces
Wf   p V  dA   p (V  n)dA
CS CS
Ws   Wp  Wt
Positive when
fluid does Pump is a mechanical Turbine is a mechanical
work on device which does device on which the
machine and work on a fluid system fluid system does work
negative when to increase its energy and looses some of its
work is done (negative sign) energy (positive sign)
on the fluid
by a machine
dW dWs dWf
 p V  n  dA
  dW dWp dWt
dt dt dt    
dt dt dt CS

Rate of change of heat energy, dQ/dt
dQ
If heat is added to the system: 0
dt
dQ
If heat is extracted from the system: 0
dt
Let us investigate the physical interpretation of the change of variation of the heat energy of the system. We
will consider two cases:
Case of Ideal Fluid: Case of Real Fluid:

Ideal Fluid is defined as a nonviscous fluid. In reality Real Fluid is defined as a viscous fluid. In reality all
all fluids are viscous. Ideal fluid is a simplification of fluids are viscous.
the reality.
In case of an ideal fluid, if the flow process is In case of a real fluid, even if the flow process is
adiabatic (i.e. no energy is transferred in or out of fluid adiabatic (i.e. no energy is transferred in or out of fluid
system) the internal energy of the fluid system remains system) the internal energy of the fluid system
constant. decreases.
Ideal fluid does not experience any internal energy The reason for this is the loss of a portion of the
loss, since there is no friction. mechanical energy by conversion into heat (due to
internal friction and friction with the surroundings).
The lost mechanical energy cannot be recovered by the
flow, and it is forever lost.

 V 
2
 V 
2
dQ  dWp dWt   
   
By combining all   d    u  gz    V  n dA
     p V  n dA   u  gz  
 CV t  2   2 
together :
CS 
dt  dt dt CS
  
 V 
2
 V 
2
 
dQ dWp dWt
   
  p V  n dA  

t  2 
 
u  gz    d     u  gz    V  n dA  
CS 
dt dt dt CS 2 
   
CV
 V 
2
 V 
2
 
dQ dWp dWt
   
dt CV t  2 
  
u  gz    d     u  gz    V  n dA   p V  n dA   
CS 
dt dt 2 
   
CS
p
   V  n dA

 
CS
 V 
2
 V 
2
 
Equation for Conservation of
Energy  Energy Equation
dQ dWp dWt
  
dt cv t 
u  gz    d    u   gz 
2   
p

  V  n dA
2 
 
CS 
dt dt
   
 V 
2
If the flow is steady (i.e. time

dQ dWp dWt
dt

dt
  
dt CS 
u

p
 gz 
2 

  V  n dA 
derivatives are equal to zero)  
Specific enthalpy
p
(enthalpy per unit h u 
mass) 

Concept of Energy in Open Channel Flow
We will get back to these notions later.
Let us now start discussing the concept of energy for open channel flow.
We will first introduce the definition of energy
Then we will look into difference energy between two cross sections. This will be used
to derive an equation of energy for open channel flow.

Equation of Energy for Open Channel Flow
Let us consider the open channel flow on the left.

The total energy for the fluid element at point P,
located at elevation zP, where local velocity is u,
can be written as:
u2 p p
  z P  t  Const
2g  
u2
Velocity head, i.e. energy per unit
2g weight of fluid
p
Pressure head

zP Elevation of point P, i.e. potential energy
u2 p p
  zP  t  H Total mechanical energy head or simply “total head”
2g  
p p* Important note: If the pressure distribution over the depth h
 zP  Piezometric head
  is hydrostatic, the piezometric head is constant along the
direction normal to the bed.

Note that the pressure head at the bottom of the

channel, i.e. zP = z, can be written as:
 p
   h cos 
  b
dz
with tan     Sf
dx
For  6 or S f  0.1
 p
we have cos   1 thus    h
  b
U2 p
If we consider an ideal fluid, inviscid fluid with no friction losses,
 h  z  t  H  Const
the velocity is constant over the depth, u(z) = U, we have then 2g 
U2 p
If we consider a real fluid, viscous fluid with friction losses, the e  h  z  t  H  Const
velocity has a distribution over the depth u(z) = U+f(z); we have then 2g 
3
1 u 1
where  e    
A AU 
dA  2 
QU A
u 3dA is the “kinetic energy correction coefficient”, which
accounts for the non-uniform velocity distribution.

Energy Correction Coefficient
Refer to Open Channel Flow (M.H. Chaudhry)
on Page 12

Let us now write the equation of energy between two cross sections:
Consider the flow of a real fluid in an open channel as shown in

the figure. The conservation of energy between cross sections 
and  can be written as:
2 2
U U
 e 1  h1  z1   e 2  h2  z2   h
2g 2g dx
Total head loss

Total energy at  Total energy at  between  and 
Referring to the figure let us write the above equation in a more explicit form:
U2  U2  U 2  1 U 1  o dP
e  h  z   e  d   e   h  dh  z  dz   dx  dx
2g  2 g  2 g  g t g  dA
1  o dP
where hr  dx Head loss (or energy loss per unit weight) due to friction (this is also
g  dA called linear head loss or regular head loss)
1 U Head loss (or energy loss per unit weight) due to acceleration in the
dx
g t flow in x-direction
Simplifying the previous equation, we have
 U2  1 U 1  o dP
d  e  h  z    dx  dx
 2g  g t g  dA
or
 U2  1 U
d  e  h  z    dx  hr
 2 g  g t
Head difference Total head loss    h

between  and  between  and  dx
The above equations are the energy equations for unsteady non-uniform flow. They express the conservation of
energy between two cross sections. Note that the energy slope Se = hr/dx and the bed slope Sf = -dz/dx., it can also be
written as follows:
1 U U U h
   S f  Se
g t g x x
So far we have not proposed any method to calculate energy loss due to friction. This point will be developed later in
detail and various methods will be discussed.
The energy equation for unsteady non uniform flow developed above can be manipulated to obtain the equation of
conservation of (linear) momentum for unsteady non uniform flow, which is also called dynamic equation of open
channel flow.
This is what we propose to do in the next slide.
Concept of Specific Energy
Let us consider the energy equation for a steady flow:
2 hf
V1 / 2 g U
2
U
2
2
z1  h1  1  z2  h2  2  hr
Q V2 / 2 g 2g 2g
h1
Total Energy
h2
U2
z1 z2 H zh
2g
ref. line
U2
L Specific Energy: H s  h 
2g
Specific energy is the total mechanic energy with respect to the local invert elevation of the channel.
Note that since U Q/ A we can also write H s  e

Q / A
2
 h  e
Q2
h
Q2
h
2g 2 gA2 2 gA2
Q2
For a given cross section, the flow area, A, is a function of h;
Hs  h
therefore, the specific energy is a function of Q and h. 2 gA2
h as a function of Hs for Q = constant Specific Energy Curve
We can thus study the variation of
h as a function of Q for Hs = constant Specific Discharge Curve

Specific Energy Curve
Q2
We wish to plot the Specific Energy Curve (i.e. h as a function of Hs for constant Q) : Hs  h 
2gA2
One immediately sees that the for h 0 we have A0 therefore Hs  
curve has two asymptotes:
for h we have A therefore Hs  h
In addition, for a given Q, the curve has a minimum value, Hsc. We will see about this minimum later in detail.
Some observations impose:

• For a given Hs, there are always (except when Hs = Hsc) two depths h1 and h2. They are called alternate depths.
• The depth corresponding to the minimum specific energy, Hsc, is called critical depth, hc.
• Minimum specific energy, Hsc, increases with increasing discharge, Q.
• There are three possible flow regimes: subcritical (h > hc), critical (h = hc), and supercritical (h < hc).

Critical Depth and Specific Energy
The critical depth hc, can be investigated by taking the derivative of specific energy, Hs, with respect
to the depth h, and then equating it to zero (point of minimum); i.e. dHs/dh = 0.
U2 Q2
Specific Energy Hs  h  h
2g 2 gA2
B
dHs Q2 dA
1 3
0
dh gA dh
B because dA  B dh
dHs Q2 Q2
Therefore : 1 3
B0 3
B 1
dh gA gA
Let us work on this equation 1 Q2 B U2 1 U

to see what it means: 2
1 1 Fr  1
g A A g Dh gD h
This shows that the critical flow condition (h = hc and Hs is minimum)

is reached when Froude number is equal to one.

How to plot the specific energy curve for a cross section
h
It is important Curve plotted for a constant Q
to note that for
some h = hc, the To plot the specific energy curve:
specific energy 1. Select a discharge Q
U2
curve is at its Hs  h  2. Assume an h value
minimum value. 2g 3. Calculate A knowing h
4. Calculate U = Q/A
5. Calculate U2/2g
h1 6. Calculate Hs = h + U2/2g
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 by assuming
hc Alternate depths
2 other h values.
Uc / 2g
h1  hc 2
hc h2 U 2 / 2g Supercritical flow
h2  hc
Es  H s Es or H s
The specific energy, Hs, which is always measured with respect to the
channel bed, is composed of pressure energy (h) and kinetic energy
Specific Energy (V2/2g).
U2 Q2
Hs  h  h
2g 2 gA2
Specific Discharge Curve for a Cross Section
h Specific Energy
Curve plotted for
Es  Const. or H s  Const. U2
Hs  h 
2g
U2 Q2
Hs  h  h
2g 2 gA2
q  qmax H s  h  2 gA2  Q 2
hc Q  A 2 g H s  h 
For a rectangular section

Q A2  h 2 B 2
H s  h  2 gB 2 h 2  Q 2
Instead of plotting h vs Hs for a constant discharge Q Q2
(or q), i.e. specific energy curve, one can also plot h vs H s  h  2 g h  2  q 2
2
Q (or q) for a constant Hs. This will be called specific B

discharge curve.
q  h 2 g H s  h 

Critical Depth and Specific Discharge Curve
for h0 we have Q0

We can easily see that
for h  Hs we have Q0
Discharge curve has a maximum, Qmax, for
2 g H s  hdA / dh  Ag
dQ d

dh dh

A 2 g H s  h   
2 g H s  h2
0
dA A
Since B and Dh 
dh B
dQ gB 2H s  h   Dh 
 0 The expression 2H sc  hc   Dhc  0
2 g H s  h
We can write 2
dh is zero if
2H sc  hc   hc  0
2
For a rectangular channel Dh  h hc  H sc
3
2H sc  hc  
h hc 4
For a triangular channel Dh  0 hc  H sc
2 2 5
2H sc  hc  
2h 2hc 3
For a parabolic channel Dh  0 hc  H sc
3 3 4
Critical Depth and its Importance
Critical depth, hc, in a channel is the flow depth at which:
• The specific energy is minimal, Hsc, for a given discharge, Q,
• The discharge is maximal, Qmax, for a given specific energy Hsc.
For critical flow in a channel: 2H sc  hc   Dhc
Recall that: Qmax  Ac 2 g H sc  hc  Qmax  Ac g Dhc

2
Uc D
The average velocity corresponding to the critical depth is : U c  g Dhc or  hc
2g 2
For critical flow in a channel, the velocity head is equal to half of the hydraulic depth
Uc
One can also write: U c  g Dhc 1 Frc  1
g Dhc
Propagation velocity of small

Critical velocity is given by U c  g Dhc  c perturbations in still water of depth h
Fr  1 Subcritical flow
Flow regimes can be
classified according to Fr Fr  1 Critical flow
Fr  1 Supercritical flow
Critical Depth for the Special Case of Rectangular Channel
In a rectangular channel, we have Dh  h

2 2
Recall that the critical depth, hc, in a rectangular channel is given by: hc  H sc
3
or H sc  hc   hc  U c
2 2g
Using the definition of unit discharge: q  Uh

hc q2 q2
One obtains:  hc  3 This is valid for a rectangular channel
2 2 g hc 2 g
3
2 
q  g hc  g  H sc 
3
The maximum unit discharge, q, which may exist in a rectangular channel is:
3 
Critical flow is unstable and, generally, it cannot be maintained over a long distance. Critical flow is rather a local
phenomenon.
For a given cross section shape, the critical depth depends only on discharge. This property is exploited to design flow
measuring methods and devices in open channels.

Example: Plotting a Specific Energy Curve
A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of b = 3.0m and side slopes of m = 1.5. Calculate and plot
the specific energy curve for a discharge of Q = 2.0m3/s.
Specific Energy Curve for a Trapezoidal Channel

B Specific energy is V2 Q2
Channel and flow data Hs  h  h
b= 3m defined as: 2g 2 gA2
m= 1.5 (-) 1 h
3
Q= 2 m /s m The calculation of Hs for different h was
b carried out on an MS Excel spreadsheet as
V
Fr  shown on the left. The calculated values are
b  mhh b  2mh gDh
h A V = Q/A V2/2g Hs B Dh = A/B Fr plotted below:
m m2 m/s m m m m (-)
0.100 0.315 6.349 2.055 2.155 3.300 0.095 6.56
0.147 0.474 4.218 0.907 1.054 3.442 0.138 3.63
0.194 0.640 3.125 0.498 0.692 3.583 0.179 2.36 1.200
0.218 0.726 2.757 0.387 0.605 3.654 0.199 1.98

0.242 0.813 2.461 0.309 0.550 3.725 0.218 1.68 1.000
0.265 0.901 2.219 0.251 0.516 3.796 0.237 1.45
0.289 0.992 2.016 0.207 0.496 3.867 0.257 1.27
0.301 1.038 1.927 0.189 0.490 3.902 0.266 1.19 0.800
0.317 1.103 1.814 0.168 0.485 3.952 0.279 1.10
h (m)
0.331 1.159 1.726 0.152 0.483 3.994 0.290 1.02 0.600
0.336 1.178 1.698 0.147 0.483 4.008 0.294 1.00
0.349 1.231 1.624 0.134 0.484 4.048 0.304 0.94
0.389 1.395 1.434 0.105 0.494 4.168 0.335 0.79 0.400
0.436 1.592 1.256 0.080 0.516 4.307 0.370 0.66

0.469 1.737 1.152 0.068 0.537 4.407 0.394 0.59 0.200
0.535 2.036 0.982 0.049 0.584 4.606 0.442 0.47
0.602 2.348 0.852 0.037 0.639 4.805 0.489 0.39
0.668 2.674 0.748 0.029 0.697 5.004 0.534 0.33 0.000
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500
0.734 3.012 0.664 0.022 0.757 5.203 0.579 0.28
0.867 3.730 0.536 0.015 0.882 5.602 0.666 0.21 Hs (m)
1.000 4.500 0.444 0.010 1.010 6.000 0.750 0.16

Example: Plotting a Specific Discharge Curve
Solved Problem 14.2

A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of b = 3.0m and side slopes of m = 1.5. Calculate and plot
the specific discharge curve for a specific energy of Hs = 0.6m.
Specific Discharge Curve for a Trapezoidal Channel B
Specific energy is V2 Q2
Channel and flow data Hs  h  h
b= 3.000 m
1 h
defined as: 2g 2 gA2
m= 1.500 (-)
Q2
Q  A 2 g H s  h 
Hs = 0.600 m m
hc = 0.421 m Hs  h 
Dh = 0.358 m
b 2gA2
Fr = 1.00 (-)
The calculation of Q for different h was carried
Fr 
V out on an MS Excel spreadsheet as shown on the
b  2mh b  mhh gDh
left. The calculated values are plotted below:
h B A Q V = Q/A V2/2g Hs Dh = A/B Fr
2 3
m m m m /s m/s m m m (-)
0.100 3.300 0.315 0.987 3.132 0.500 0.600 0.095 3.24
0.164 3.492 0.533 1.558 2.924 0.436 0.600 0.153 2.39 0.7
0.228 3.685 0.763 2.061 2.700 0.372 0.600 0.207 1.89
0.260 3.781 0.883 2.279 2.581 0.340 0.600 0.233 1.71 0.6
0.292 3.877 1.006 2.470 2.456 0.308 0.600 0.259 1.54
0.325 3.974 1.132 2.631 2.325 0.275 0.600 0.285 1.39 0.5
0.357 4.070 1.261 2.755 2.185 0.243 0.600 0.310 1.25
0.373 4.118 1.326 2.801 2.112 0.227 0.600 0.322 1.19 0.4
h (m)
0.395 4.185 1.419 2.846 2.005 0.205 0.600 0.339 1.10
0.414 4.243 1.501 2.864 1.909 0.186 0.600 0.354 1.02 0.3
0.421 4.262 1.528 2.865 1.875 0.179 0.600 0.358 1.00
0.424 4.273 1.543 2.865 1.856 0.176 0.600 0.361 0.99
0.435 4.305 1.589 2.859 1.799 0.165 0.600 0.369 0.95
0.2
0.448 4.343 1.644 2.842 1.729 0.152 0.600 0.378 0.90
0.457 4.370 1.683 2.822 1.677 0.143 0.600 0.385 0.86 0.1
0.475 4.424 1.761 2.764 1.569 0.125 0.600 0.398 0.79
0.492 4.477 1.841 2.674 1.453 0.108 0.600 0.411 0.72 0.0
0.510 4.531 1.922 2.548 1.326 0.090 0.600 0.424 0.65 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
0.528 4.585 2.004 2.376 1.186 0.072 0.600 0.437 0.57 Q (m3/s)
0.564 4.692 2.170 1.820 0.839 0.036 0.600 0.462 0.39
0.600 4.800 2.340 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.600 0.488 0.00

Hydraulic Jump
• Refer to Open Channel Flow (M.H. Chaudhry)
on Page 43

Homework
Open-Channel Flow, 2nd Edition, by M.H.
Chaurdhry
• Problems 2.11, 2.12, 2.19, and 2.24

Critical Flows in Different Types of Channels
• Refer to Chapter 3, Open Channel Flow (M.H.
Chaudhry) on Pages 55-85

Concept of Uniform Flow
Now we will introduce an important concept:
The Uniform Flow
In relation with uniform flow, we will also define:
Normal Depth or Uniform Flow Depth

Pioneers who Introduced the Concept of Uniform Flow
Willi Hager (2003) : “Hydraulicians in Europe, 1800-2000”; IAHR Monograph, IAHR, Delft, Netherlands
Antoine de Chézy Robert Manning Strickler

born at Chalon-sur-Marne, born on Oct 22, 1816 in born on July 27, 1887 in
France, on September 1, 1718, Normandy, died on Dec 9, 1897 Wädensville, died on Feb 1, 1963
died on October 4, 1798 in Dublin in Küsnacht
Chézy was given the task to determine the At the age of 30, Robert Manning entered the Obtained his diploma of mechanical
cross section and the related discharge for a service of the commissioners of public works engineering at ETH Zurich in 1916. He
proposed canal on the river Yvette, which is to work on the projects of arterial drainage. In submitted a Ph.D. thesis related to turbine
close to Paris, but at a higher elevation. Since 1855 he started his own business and was design. He was appointed head of section in
1769, he was collecting experimental data involved in harbor works in Dundrum. In 1869, Federal Water Resources Office, where he was
from the canal of Courpalet and from the river he returned to the public service and was involved with low head power plants. In 1928
Seine. His studies and conclusions are promoted chief engineer in 1874. In 1880 he he was elected the director of the Swiss
contained in a report to Mr. Perronet dated was in charge of the improvement of river Power Transmission Society in Bern. Later he
October 21, 1775. The original document, Shannon and later he worked on fishery piers. founded a private company and worked on
written in French, is titled "Thesis on the Manning retired in 1881. projects in eastern Switzerland.
velocity of the flow in a given ditch," and it is
He developed the formula that bears his name He is well known for his uniform flow formula
signed by Mr. Chézy, General Inspector of des
from Ganguillet-Kutter formula based on the that he established using his own data and
Ponts et Chaussées
data by Henry Basin. data from literature.
http://chezy.sdsu.edu/

Consider a channel defined by the following characteristics :

Cross section shape i.e. the relationships: A = f(h), B = f(h), and P = f(h)
Bed slope (S = tg)
The roughness of the bed (ks)
Assume also that the channel is sufficiently long.
h=?

The question is: what will be the flow depth in the channel for a given discharge ?
To answer this question we must consider the equilibrium between the forces driving the
flow (gravitational force) and forces resisting the flow (friction due to viscous forces).
The flow depth will become constant when an equilibrium is reached between driving
and resisting forces (i.e. no net force is acting on the flow).

Consider a prismatic open channel (the section does not change along the flow direction) with S o
Consider a free-surface flow of constant depth in this channel
i.e. the free surface is parallel to the bed
Equilibrium of all forces in the flow direction
L (no acceleration)
W sin   F f
W sin  F f   o ( P L)
with
W   ( A L)
gh sin   tan 
Ff gh
 ( AL) tan    o ( P L)

small  A
W  o     tan 
P
A  o   Rh So
with tan   So and  Rh
P

 u*  g Rh So
2
with u* 

2
f  u*  f 2 f 2
u*  V  g Rh S o
2
remember also   V
8 V  8 8
1 V2
by rearranging terms, we get So  f which is Darcy-Weissbach eqn
4 Rh 2 g
It tells us that in case of uniform flow the slope of the energy gradient line (right hand side
of Darcy-Weissbach eqn) is also parallel to the bed slope, So.
In uniform flow in an open channel, the water surface, the bed and the energy
line are all parallel to each other.

Methods for Computing Uniform Flow
Several methods are available for calculating the uniform flow in an open channel:
• Using Darcy-Weissbach equation and friction factor,
• Using Chezy equation, and
• Using Manning-Strickler equation.
We will now study these three methods is detail.

Uniform Flow Calculation Using Darcy-Weisbach Equation
1 U2
The Darcy-Weissbach equation for open channel flow is given as: So  f
4 Rh 2 g
So 4 Rh 2 g 
1 8g
This equation can be rewritten as: U2  U Rh S o
f f
8g
since Q  UA We can also write Q  UA  Rh S o A
f
In this equation both hydraulic radius and flow area are functions of depth h: A = f(h) and Rh = f(h)
The friction coefficient can be computed either using Moody-Stanton diagram or Colebrook and White equation.
Colebrook and White equation for friction coefficient in pipes (for all flow regimes) was adapted for open channel
flows (valid for all regimes) by Silberman et al. (1963) as follows:
1  k / R  bf 
 2.0 log  s h   with 12  a f  15 and 0  bf  6
f  a f Re f 
U 4 Rh
Reynolds number is computed as: Re 


Uniform flow problems can be solved by START

solving the following two equations
simultaneously:
Read Q, cross section
8g data, ks, and So
Q  UA  Rh S o A
f
Estimate hn
and
Calculate A, P, Rh, and ks/Rh
1  k / R  bf 
 2.0 log  s h   U = Q/A and Re = 4URh/
f  a f Re f  Calculate discharge with
8g
Estimate f Qc  Rh S o A
Note that if it is required to solve for the flow f
depth for a given discharge and cross section Use Colebrook and White
equation to calculate f’
geometry, a trial and error procedure, such as is no
the one shown on the right, must be used. Q = Qc
Use Colebrook and White ?
equation to calculate f’
The trial and error procedure has two loops. yes
The outer loop iterates the value of h until we Output the results:
is yes
reach the normal depth hn. The criteria for f = f’ hn, A, P, Rh, ks/Rh
stopping the iteration is that the computed ? Re, f, Q, U
discharge is equal to the given discharge. The
no
inner loop finds the value of f iteratively. The
criteria for stopping the iteration is that the take f = f’ END
computed friction factor is equal to the
estimated friction factor.

In rough channels of large width, Rh = h, the friction coefficient, f , can be obtained making in situ measurements of
two point velocities and assuming a logarithmic velocity distribution:
u 1  z u 1  z u 2.3026  z
 ln    8.5  ln( 10) log    8.5  log    8.5
u*   k s  u*   ks  u*   ks 
u  z u  30 z 
 5.75 log    8.5  5.75 log  
u*  ks  u*  s 
k
It is customary to measure and use point velocities at 0.2h and 0.8h.
 (30) (0.2h)   6h 
z  0.2h u ( z  0.8)  u0.2 u0.2  5.75 u* log    5.75 u* log  
 ks   ks 
 (30) (0.8h)   24h 
z  0.8h u ( z  0.2)  u0.8 u0.8  5.75 u* log    5.75 u* log  
 k s   s 
k
 h  0.78  1.38 u0.8

Eliminating u* from these two equations, one obtains: log    with  
 ks  1 u 0.2
The expression for the average velocity for U h U 1.78   0.95
 5.75 ln    6.25 
turbulent rough flow in a wide channel (Rh ≈ h) is: u*  ks  u*  1
The expression for the frcition coefficient for 1 h 1 1.78   0.95
 2.03 log    2.2 
turbulent rough flow in a wide channel (Rh ≈ h) is: f  ks  f 8  1
The table given below is not exhaustive.
Consult other references for a more detailed table.
Types of Wall ks (mm)
The values given in the table are for circular industrial pipes.
Glass, copper, brass < 0.001 However, they are generally assumed to be valid also for openc
channel flows.
Lead 0.025
Steel pipe, old 0.03 to 0.1 Since open channel cross sections are not circular in general, a
correction factor must be used to multiply the hydraulic radius.
Steel pipe, new 0.4 This correction factor takes into account the influence of the
shape of the channel.
Wrought iron, new 0.25
Rectangular cross section (B = 2h)   0.95
Wrought iron, old 1.0 to 1.5
Large trapezoidal cross section   0.80
Wrought iron, coated 0.1
Triangular (equilateral) cross section   1.25
Concrete, smooth 0.3 to 0.8
Using these corrections, in the formulate replace Rh by Rh.
Concrete, rough <3.0
Wood 1.0 to 2.5
Riveted Steel 0.9 to 9
Stone, worked rough 8 to 15
Rock 90 to 600

We begin by dividing the flow into several regions:
• The viscous sublayer (~0.00 ≤ z’/h ≤ ~0.05) is where the viscous forces are dominant. The velocity profile varies
linearly with the distance from the bed.
• The inner region (~0.05 ≤ z’/h ≤ ~0.2) is where the turbulence production is important. The length and velocity
scales are /u* and u*, respectively,
• The outer region (z’/h ≥ ~0.6) is where the free surface properties are important. The length and velocity scales are
flow depth h and maximum flow velocity Uc, respectively,
• The intermediate region (~0.2 ≤ z’/h ≤ ~0.6) is where turbulent energy production and dissipation are
approximately equal.
Outer region
Outer region
Intermediate
region
Inner region
Inner region
Viscous sublayer
From here on, however, we will assume that there are only two layers:
• The inner region will be assumed to include also the viscous sublayer. The inner region, therefore, is defined as:
~0.00 ≤ z’/h ≤ ~0.20 ,
• The outer region will be assumed to include also the intermediate region. The outer region is, therefore, defined as:
~0.2 ≤ z’/h ≤ 1.00 .
Without going into details, the derivation of the velocity profile for the inner region leads to:
u 1
 ln z '  C
u* 
This equation is called law of the wall, or logarithmic velocity profile. It is only valid in the inner region. It is
important to remember that it has been derived by assuming that the longitudinal pressure distribution is negligible and
the shear stress is constant and equal to the wall shear stress over the entire inner region. The integration constant C
needs to be determined experimentally.
To summarize, inn the inner region the velocity has the following functional relationship:
u  f  o ,  ,  , k s , z '
In the above equation, ks represents Nikuradze’s equivalent sand roughness, which can be interpreted as the
characteristics length scale corresponding to the height of the roughness elements.
Note: Although it is not correct, for simplicity, sometimes the logarithmic velocity profile is assumed to apply
over the entire flow depth.

Flow Regimes and Friction Coefficient
The conclusion of Nikuradse’s experiments was that there is no unique relationship between friction factor, f , Reynolds
number, VD/n, and the relative pipe roughness, ks /D. Different relationships must be used for different flow types.
The classification of flow types is done using “Reynolds number” and “shear Reynolds number” as criteria.
o
Shear velocity u* 
Reynolds number u (r ) roughness 
UD D
Re  U (r )
 Shear
ks u* k s
Reynolds Re * 
Number 
o
Re < 2000 Laminar flow
2000 < Re < 3000 Transition flow

u* k s
Re > 3000 Turbulent flow Hydraulic smooth 5

u* k s
1st level of classification Hydraulic transition 5  70

u* k s
Hydraulic rough  70

2nd level of classification

Friction Coefficient Formulae for Different Flow Regimes
Laminar Flow
64
f 
Re
Turbulent Smooth Flow
1
f
 2 log Re  
f  0.8
Turbulent Rough Flow

Colebrook-White Formula
1  k s / D  2.5 
 2.0 log   
f  3.7 Re f 
Swamee and Jain Formula

0.25
f 
  ks 5.74 
2
L V2
 hf  f Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss
 10  3.7 D Re 0.9 
log
D 2g
  

Developing a Diagram for Friction Coefficient
The Darcy-Weisbach equation was not made universally useful until the development of the Moody diagram (Moody,
1944) based on the work of Hunter Rouse. Rouse always felt that Moody was given too much credit for what he himself
and others did (http://biosystems.okstate.edu/darcy/DarcyWeisbach/Darcy-WeisbachHistory.htm)
Sir Thomas Ernest Stanton

December 12, 1865, Atherstone, GB
August 30, 1931, Eastbourne, GB
Lewis F. Moody
Received his BSc from Owen’s College , Manchester, in 1891 and worked as Professor of Hydraulic Engineering,
assistant to Osborne Reynolds. In 1896 took a position of lecturer in engineering at Princeton University
the University College, Liverpool, together with Henry S. Hele-Shaw. Submitted
his Ph.D. Thesis in 1898 and became professor of civil and mechanical
engineering at Bristol University in 1899. In 1901, he was appointed The current form of the Moody-Stanton diagram (or
superintendent of the newly inaugurated National Physical Laboratory, chart) was proposed by Moody in his paper:
Teddington, where he stayed until his retirment in 1930. He did research on
sterngth of materials, lubrication, heat transmission, and hydrodynamics. His main “Moody, L. F., 1944. Friction factors for pipe flow.
contribution is his 1914 paper with J.R. Pannell: “Similarity relations of motion in Transactions of the ASME, Vol. 66”.
relation to the surface friction of fluids, Philosophical Transactions 214: 199-224”.
Stantaon received numerous prizes. He became a fellow of the Royal Society in
1914. He was knighted in 1928. He drowned in the sea near Pevensey.
Willi H. Hager (2003) :”Hydraulicians in Europe, 1800-2000”, IAHR Monograph.
Published by IAHR, Delft, The Netherlands * http://biosystems.okstate.edu/darcy/DarcyWeisbach/Darcy-WeisbachHistory.htm

Moody-Stanton Diagram for Friction Coefficient in Pipes (and in open channel)
Moody-Stanton Diagram for Industrial Pipes

Colebrook and White Equation for Friction Coefficient
We know that:
u* k s
5 Turbulent smooth flow

u* k s
In between 5  70 Turbulent transition flow

u* k s
 70 Turbulent rough flow

Colebrook and White equation for friction coefficient in pipes (for all flow regimes) was adapted for open channel
flows (valid for all regimes) by Silberman et al. (1963) as follows:
1  k / R  bf 
 2.0 log  s h   with 12  a f  15 and 0  bf  6
f  a f Re f 
U 4 Rh
Reynolds number is computed as: Re 

For wide channels it is recommended to take: a f  12 and b f  3 .4
1  bf  Turbulent
ks  0  2.0 log  
f  Re f  smooth flow
Consider the following limiting cases:
1  k / R  
Re    2.0 log  s h  Turbulent rough
f  a f  flow

Chezy and Manning-Strickler Equations for Computing Uniform Flow
Chezy Equation Manning-Strickler Equation
1 V2 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
start with Darcy-Weissbach eqn So  f Manning defined V Rh S o
4 Rh 2 g n
V  K Rh
2/3 1/ 2
 1  2 Strickler defined So
rearrange So Rh   f  V
 8g  1
which means K
 8g  n
define the Chezy coefficient C 2   
 f  using Q  VA
to obtain the Chezy equation V  C So Rh A 2 / 3 1/ 2
Manning eqn for discharge Q Rh S o
n
This is the average velocity for uniform flow in a channel
Q  K A Rh
2/3 1/ 2
Strickler eqn for discharge So
using Q  VA
we get discharge Q  VA  CA So Rh Manning eqn for V
1.49 2 / 3 1/ 2
Rh S o
traditional unit system n
Relationship between the two friction coefficients
1/ 6
R
C h
n
Chezy and Manning Coefficients
ATTENTION ! DIMENSIONAL COEFFICIENTS

Chezy Equation Manning-Strickler Equation

C m1/ 2 s 1  
n m 1/ 3 s 
Tables are available for various surfaces Tables are available for various surfaces

Chezy and Manning Coefficients
Chezy Equation
Chezy equation is valid only for turbulent rough flows. It should not be used for laminar flows or turbulent smooth
flows.
1
Note that one can write the following relationship between the Chezy Coefficient, C, and C  8g
the friction factor, f: f
Therefore one can use two-point velocity measurements to calculate the Chezy coefficient (Graf & Altinakar 1998,
Pp77-78):
C  8g
1
 1.78 g
  0.95
f  1
Tables of Chezy coefficients for different types of channel materials are given in various textbooks and reference
books:

Manning Coefficients for Various Types of Channels
n (m-1/3s) n (m-1/3s)
Taken from  http://harris.centreconnect.org/Table%20A-1.htm

Manning Coefficient for Natural Channels
Hydraulic computations in natural stream require an evaluation of the roughness characteristics of the channel. In the absence of a
satisfactory quantitative procedure this evaluation remains chiefly an art. The ability to evaluate roughness coefficients must be developed
through experience. One means of gaining this experience is by examining and becoming acquainted with the appearance of some typical
channels whose roughness coefficients are known.
The USGS web site http://wwwrcamnl.wr.usgs.gov/sws/fieldmethods/Indirects/nvalues/index.htm displays photos, characteristics and
Manning-Strickler coefficients for a wide range of channel conditions. It would be a good idea to study these photos. Familiarity with the
appearance, geometry, and roughness characteristics of these channels will improve your ability to select roughness coefficients for
channels that you will encounter in your professional life.
n
(m-1/3s) Stream Photo 1 Photo 2
0.024 Columbia River at Vernita, Washington
0.028 Clark Fork at St. Regis, Montana
0.030 Clark Fork above Missoula, Montana
0.032 Salt River below Stewart Mountain Dam, Arizona

Manning-Strickler Coefficient for Natural Streams: Wenatchee River at Plain, Washington
Photo 169: Downstream from above Photo 173: Downstream from section
section 1, Wenatchee River at Plain, 2, Wenatchee River at Plain,
Washington Washington
Wenatchee River at Plain, Washington

•Station name
•Station number 12-4570
•Gage location Lat 47°45'50'', long 120°39'30'', in lot 8, sec.
12, T. 26 N., R. 17 E., on left bank at Plain, 0.25
mile downstream from Beaver Creek, 7.5 miles
downstream from Nason Creek, and 12 miles
north of Leavensworth. Section 1 is about
1,360 ft upstream from gage.
•Drainage area 591 sq mi.

•Date of flood May 29, 1948
Lenght (ft) Fall (ft) •Gage height 12.43 ft at gage: 16.50 ft at section 1
A B h Rh U
Sect. between between
(ft2) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft/s) •Peak discharge 22,700 cfs
sections sections
1 2,480 224 11.1 10.86 9.15 ....... ..... •Computed roughness Manning n = 0.037
coefficient
2 2,470 228 10.8 10.58 9.19 311 0.75 •Description of channel Bed is boulders; d50 = 162 mm, d85 = 320 mm.
3 2,440 237 10.3 10.05 9.30 325 .75 Bank are lined with trees and bushes.

Grain Size Distribution in Natural Channel Bed
Measurement of grain size distribution of sediments by sieving:
Cumulative
Grain Size Weight of Size Weight Cumulative
Weight %Passed
http://www.retsch.com/279.0.html?&L=0 (mm) Fraction (g) Percent Weight %Retained
0.01 0.6 0.02 100 0

0.063 0.5 0.02 99.98 0.02
0.125 0.6 0.02 99.96 0.04
0.25 1.2 0.04 99.94 0.06
0.354 1.8 0.06 99.9 0.1
0.5 4.7 0.16 99.84 0.16
0.707 17.5 0.59 99.68 0.32
1 172.2 5.81 99.09 0.91
1.41 2570.1 86.74 93.28 6.72
2 152.7 5.15 6.54 93.46
2.83 41.2 1.39 1.39 98.61
4 0 0 0 100
2963.1 100
Sieve Shaker AS 400

control by Retsch Cumulative Weight %Retained
Weight of Size Fraction (g)

d (mm)

Manning Coefficients for Channel with Mobile Bed Made of Granular Material
Manning-Strickler Coefficient for Mobile Bed Made of Granular Material
1/ 6
d d 50 Diameter of the holes of a sieve which would pass 50% of a sediment sample taken
n  50 where
21.1 from the bed of the channel
1/ 6
d d 90 Diameter of the holes of a sieve which would pass 90% of a sediment sample taken
n  90 where
26.0 from the bed of the channel
Other expressions that are used in practice:

According to “River Mechanics” by Pierre Julien:
1/ 6 1/ 6 1/ 6
d d d
n  50 n  75 n  90
16.1 21.7 26.3
n  0.062 d50 n  0.046 d75 n  0.038 d90

1/ 6 1/ 6 1/ 6

Dependence of Manning Coefficient on Relative Depth!
At this point, we are only discussing the “grain roughness”. In natural
channels, the friction is also caused by bed forms. This will be
discussed in detail later. The figure compares the Manning-Strickler
and logarithmic law relationships with measured data as a function of
1/ 6
C 8 Rh U the relative depth (flow depth divided by the characteristic height of
   the sediment grains, such as ds = d50).
g f n g gRh So
h h

d s d 50

Composite Roughness
Consider an open channel cross section with different roughness types.
One way to handle the situation of composite

roughness is to divide the flow area into parts, each
of which is influenced by a single type of roughness.
Each part will have its own flow area (A1, A2, … AN),
A1 A2 A3
P3 its own perimeter (P1, P2, … PN), thus its own
P1 hydraulic radius (Rh1, Ah2, … AhN), and its own
roughness (n1, n2, … nN). We will assume that the
velocity through each individual flow area is the
P2 same and is equal to the average value through the
cross section (U1 = U2 = … = UN = U = Q/A).
N
Note that the individual flow areas sum up to give the total flow area: A1  A2  ....  AN   Ai  A
1
Assuming that the Manning-Strickler equation is valid for each individual flow area, we can write:
2/3 2/3 2/3
1 A  1 A  1  AN 
2/3
1  A
U   1 Sf 1/2
  2 Sf 1/2
 ....    Sf 1/2
   S f 1/2
n1  P1  n2  P2  nN  PN  neq  P 
2/3
 N 3/ 2 
  Pi ni 
After various simplifying assumptions, neq  1 
Einstein and Horton has suggested to use:  P 
 

Composite Roughness
References for Einstein Horton equation are:
Horton R. E., “Separate roughness coefficients for channel bottom and
sides.” Engineering News-Record, vol iii, No. 22 (30 November
A1 A2 A3 1933), pp 652-653
P3
P1
Einstein.. H. A.. “Der hvdraulische oder Profil-Radius.”
Schweizerische Bauzeitung ,“vol 103~ No. 8 (24 February 1934), pp
89-91.
P2
In fact, in addition to Einstein-Horton equation, there are other expressions proposed*:
n Ai i
U. S . Army, Office, Chief of Engineers, Hydraulic Design of
Flood Control Channels. EM 1110-2-1601 (unpublished
Los Angeles District equation neq  1 Engineer Manual draft )
A
2/3
 N 3/ 2  Colebatch, G. T., “Model tests on Liawenee Canal roughness
  ni Ai  coefficients.” Transactions of the Institution, Journal of the
Institution of Engineers, vol 13, No. 2, Australia (February
Colebatch equation neq  1  1941), pp 27-32.
 A 
 
In general, Einstein-Horton equation gives a more conservative estimation. It is preferred for design purposes.
(*) Hydraulic design criteria, SHEETS 610-1 to 610-7, TRAPEZOIDAL CHANNELS (http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/Media/2/8/3/600.pdf)

Concept of Conveyance
Let us study the concept of conveyance.

A 2 / 3 1/ 2
Consider a prismatic open channel with a fixed bed. The uniform Q  AU  Rh S o
flow discharge can be calculated using Manning-Strickler Equation: n
The parameters characterizing the cross section of the channel are:
A  f (h) Flow area Together they form a term that can be interpreted as A 2/3
a measure of the ability of the cross section to K ( h)  Rh
Rh  f (h) Hydraulic radius n
convey flow; it is therefore called conveyance.
n Manning coefficient Conveyance is a function of depth:
Q  AU  K (h) So
1/ 2
The Manning-Strickler equation , therefore reduces to:

Best Hydraulic Section (Most Efficient Cross-Section)
What is best hydraulic section ?

A section that gives the largest flow area for the smallest perimeter !
For a rectangular channel
A  Bz
A
P  B  2z P  2z
z
Let us keep A as constant. P is then only a function of z. Let us vary z to minimize the perimeter
dP  A A Bz B
 2 20 2
2 2
2 z
dz z z z 2
To obtain best rectangular hydraulic section the depth must equal half of the width.
r r
h
B
Compound Channel
Method : Solve for each flow region separately and add the discharges.
A1 Am
P1
n1 nm
Pm
So Channel slope is the same for main channel and the flood plain
A1 1 A1
Rh1  V1  Q1  A1 V1 
2/3 1/ 2 2/3 1/ 2
Rh1 S o Rh1 S o
P1 n1 n1
Am 1 Am
Rhm  Vm  Qm  Am Vm 
2/3 1/ 2 2/3 1/ 2
Rhm S o Rhm S o
Pm nm nm
QT  Qm  Q1

Example: Computation of Uniform Flow
The triangular drainage ditch shown in the figure has a side slope of m = 2:
a) Find the critical depth, hc, for a discharge of Q = 0.35 m3/s and the
corresponding minimum specific energy.
b) Calculate the discharge if the flow depth is h = 0.6m. The channel has a
Manning coefficient of n = 0.025m-1/3/s and a bed slope of So = 0.001.
2
 Q  2
Froude number for a
Fr 
V

Q When flow is
Fr 2     Q 1
triangular channel is critical, we have Fr  A gD  A 2
gD
gDh A gDh  h  h
given by: = 1: Q2
 A2 Dh
1 g
For a triangular channel, we have: A  mh2 Dh  h
2
 mh  
Q2 2 2 h m2 h5 2Q 2 2  0.352
h5 2 hc  5  0.362m
g 2 2 gm 9.81 2 2
Corresponding minimum specific energy is:
2
Vc Q2 Q2 Q2 0.352
H smin  hc   hc  2  hc   hc  2 4  0.362  2  0.453m
2g Ac 2 g  2 2
mhc 2 g  m hc 2 g 2  0.362 4  2  9.81
A 2 / 3 1/ 2
Uniform flow discharge is calculated using Manning-Strickler equation: Rh SQ
n
h  0.6m mh 2  0.6
A  mh2  2  0.62  0.72m2 Rh    0.268m
2 1 m 2
2 1 2 2
A 2 / 3 1/ 2 0.72
Q Rh S  0.2682 / 3 0.0011/ 2  0.379m3 / s
n 0.025
Solved Problem 14.4

A trapezoidal channel having a bottom width of b = 2.0 m and side slopes of m = 1.5 carries a uniform flow with a
depth of h = 0. 557m. The channel has a bed slope of S = 0.005 and the coefficient of Manning is n = 0.030 m -1/3s.
a) What is the discharge of the uniform flow?

b) What is the regime of flow?
B  b  2mh  2  2  1.5  0.557  3.671 m

For a trapezoidal channel
the geometric relationships P  b  2h 1  m 2  2  2  0.557 1  1.5 2  4.008 m
can be calculated as
follows: A  b  mh  h   2  1.5  0.557 0.557  1.579 m 2
R h  A / P  1.579 / 4.008  0.394 m

The uniform flow discharge can
be calculated using Manning- A 2 / 3 1/ 2 1.579
Q Rh S  (0.394) 2 / 3 (0.005)1/ 2  2.001 m3 / s
Strickler equation n 0.030
V Q
To determine the regime of the flow we need calculate Froude number Fr  
g Dh A g Dh
Hydraulic depth for a trapezoidal channel: Dh  A / B  1.579 / 3.671  0.43 m
Q 2.0
Fr    0.617 Fr  0.617  1 The uniform flow is subcritical
A g Dh 1.579 9.81  0.43

Example: Computation of Critical Slope
A rectangular laboratory channel has a width of B = 2.0m. The Manning coefficient of for this channel
is n = 0.020 m-1/3/s. What should be the bed slope to achieve a critical uniform flow in this channel for
a discharge of Q = 3.0m3/s ?
Hint: critical uniform flow is achieved when uniform flow depth for a given discharge is equal to the
critical depth for that same discharge.
V Q Q Q
Froude number for a rectangular channel is given by: Fr    
gh A gh Bh gh Bh gh
Q
When flow is critical Froude number is equal to 1: Fr  1
Bh gh
Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2 32
 1 h3 hc  3  3  0.612m
B 2 h 2 gh B 2 gh3 B2 g B2 g 22  9.81
2/3
A 2/3 Bh  Bh 
Uniform flow discharge is given by the Manning-Strickler equation. Q  Rh S 1/ 2    S 1/ 2
2
n n  B  2h 
From which we obtain an equation  Qn  Bh  2 / 3 
S   
for the slope S,  Bh  B  2h  
If the uniform flow is going to be 2

 Qn  Bh  2 / 3   3  0.020  2  0.612  2 / 3 
2
critical, its depth should be hc = S         0.00874

0.612m, thus we get.  Bh  B  2 h    2  0.612  2  2  0.612  

ANGLE OF REPOSE
A pile of sediment at resting at the angle of repose jr represents

a threshold condition; any slight disturbance causes a failure.
Here the pile of sediment is under water. Consider the indicated
grain. The net downslope gravitational force acting on the grain
(gravitational force – buoyancy force) is
4 D
3
4 D
3 Fc
Fgt   sg   sin j r  g   sin j r  Fgt
3 2 3 2 Fgn
s
3
4 D
Rg   sin j r , R 1 j
3 2  rr
3
4 D
The net normal force is Fgn  Rg   cos j r
3 2
The net Coulomb resistive force to motion is or thus: tan jr  c

3
4 D which is how c is measured (note that it is
Fc   c Rg   cos j r
3 2 dimensionless).
For natural sediments, jr ~ 30 ~ 40 and
Force balance requires that Fgt  Fc  0 c ~ 0.58 ~ 0.84.
1D Sediment Transport Morphodynamics with applications to Rivers and Turbidity Currents, Gary Parker, http://cee.uiuc.edu/people/parkerg/morphodynamics_e-book.htm

Hjulström curve
Hjulstrom has provided a chart for the initiation of motion and sedimentation as a function of average velocity. This
brings in the notion of critical velocity, or erosion velocity, Ucr=UE.
This chart shows that the velocity for eroding the bed is greater than the velocity for sedimentation, i.e. Ucr=UE > UD.
This indicates that, once the particle is eroded it may stay in suspension even at lower velocities.
Henning Filip Hjulström (October 6, 1902–March 26, 1982) was a Swedish geographer. Hjulström was professor of geography at
Uppsala University from 1944, and in 1949, when the subject of geography was split, he became professor of Physical Geography.

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ENGR 691 – 73: Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels

Lecture 03: Conservation Laws

Yan Ding, Ph.D.

Course Notes by: Mustafa S. Altinakar and Yan Ding

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 1

• Review of Reynolds Transport Theorem, Control Volume, and Conservation

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 2

Control Volume: A volume in space through whose boundary matter, mass,

Inertial Reference Frame: a frame of reference that describes time homogeneously

Noninertial Reference Frame: a frame of reference that is under acceleration

From the conservation of system mass:

(mI  mR )t  (mR  mO )t dt

(mI )t  1 A1ds1 (mO )t  dt  2 A2 ds2

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 4

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 5

B mt Quantity of property B present in the fluid system at time t

B mt  Dt Quantity of property B present in the fluid system at time t+Dt

B t Quantity of property B present in the control volume at time t

B t  Dt Quantity of property B present in the control volume at time t+Dt

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 6

Divide both sides of equation by Dt 

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 7

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 8

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 9

If the flow is steady or of uniform density (i.e. time 0   V  n  dA

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 10

If the flow is steady (i.e. time derivatives are equal to zero)  F   V  V  n  dA

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 11

Recall from physics: The 1st principle of DE sys DQ DW

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 12

Using the 1st equation of thermodynamics we can now write:

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 13

Rate of change of work, dW/dt

In a fluid system the work can be done in two ways: W  Ws  Wf

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 14

Case of Ideal Fluid: Case of Real Fluid:

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 15

If the flow is steady (i.e. time

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 16

We will get back to these notions later.

We will first introduce the definition of energy

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 17

Let us consider the open channel flow on the left.

zP Elevation of point P, i.e. potential energy

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 18

Note that the pressure head at the bottom of the

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 19

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 20

Consider the flow of a real fluid in an open channel as shown in

Total head loss

Head difference Total head loss    h

Note that since U Q/ A we can also write H s  e

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 23

Some observations impose:

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 24

Let us work on this equation 1 Q2 B U2 1 U

This shows that the critical flow condition (h = hc and Hs is minimum)

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 25

For a rectangular section

Q (or q) for a constant Hs. This will be called specific B

Lecture 03. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 27

for h0 we have Q0

For critical flow in a channel: 2H sc  hc   Dhc