Grading System

• Major Exam
(MidTerm and Final Exam)--------40%
• Quizzes and Summative Test--------25%
• Project or Output (April 25, 2020)
[(Academic Paper (60%) +
(SPSS Simulation (40%)]---------25%
• Attendance------------------------------10%
100%
 Project

• Find or look for actual data in your vicinity and

treat it with appropriate statistical tool.
• Apply at least 5 different statistical tools with
complete statistical procedures (Manually).
• Submit in Hard and Soft Copy. For Soft Copy email
to onemanbrave@gmail.com and for Hard Copy
(Short Bond Paper) Deadline of Submission is April
25, 2020.
• File name for soft copy follows:
Name_Subject_Sem_Year.
i.e. JLibo-on_Statistics_2nd_2020
 Project

• Title Page
• Introduction
• First Statistical Tool: ANOVA Two Factor
• Second Statistical Tool: Linear Regression
• Third Statistical Tool: Kruskal-Wallis H-Test
• Fourth Statistical Tool: Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
• Fifth Statistical Tool: Friedman Test
• Conclusion
• Reflection
The Meaning of
Statistics

Joefel T. Libo-on, Ph. D.

onemanbrave@gmail.com
Definition

Statistics is the science whereby

inferences are made about specific
random phenomena on the basis of
relatively limited sample material.

• The field of statistics has two main

areas: mathematical statistics and
applied statistics.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Definition
• Mathematical statistics concerns the
development of new methods of statistical
inference and requires detailed knowledge
of abstract mathematics for its
implementation.
• Applied statistics involves applying the
methods of mathematical statistics to
specific subject areas, such as economics,
psychology, and public health.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

The Uses of Statistics

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Prediction
• The figures help us make predictions about something that is going
to happen in the future. Based on what we face in our daily lives,
we make predictions.
• How accurate this prediction will depend on many factors. When
we make a prediction, we take into account the external or internal
factors that may affect our future. When they apply statistical
techniques to estimate an event, the same statisticians use it.
• Doctors, engineers, artists, and
practitioners all use statistics to make
predictions about future events. For
example, doctors use statistics to
understand the future of the disease.
They can predict the magnitude of the
flue in each winter season through the
use of data.
• Engineers use statistics to estimate the
success of their ongoing project, and
they also use the data to evaluate how
long it will take to complete a project.
Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies
Quality Testing
• Quality testing is another
important use of
statistics in every area of
life. On a day-to-day
basis, we conduct quality
tests to ensure that our
purchase is correct and
get the best results from
what we spend.
• We do a sample test of
what we expect to buy to
get the best. If the sample
test that we have done
passes the quality test,
we want to buy it.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Weather Forecasting
• Have you ever seen weather
forecasting? Do you know how
the government does the
weather forecasting? Statistics
play a crucial role in weather
forecasting.
• The computer use in weather
forecasting is based on the set
of statistics functions. All
these statistics function to
compare the weather condition
with the pre-recorded seasons
and conditions. This helps the
government.
Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies
Emergency Preparedness

• Statistics is also helpful

in emergency
preparedness. With the
help of statistics, we
can predict any natural
disaster that may
happen shortly. It will
help us to get prepared
for an emergency. It
also helps the rescue
team to do the
preparation to rescue
the life of the people
who are in danger.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Predicting Disease
• Statistics is even playing a role in
the medical field. Statistics help
us to know how many numbers of
people are suffering from the
disease. It also helps us to
understand how many have died
from the same disease.

• But the best part of statistics is

that it also helps you to find out
how much you affected from the
deceased. For example, a study
has shown that more than 75% of
people are infected with a disease
that is caused by mango. In that
case, you might avoid mango to
avoid this disease.
Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies
Political Campaigns
• Statistics are crucial in a political
campaign. Without statistics, no
one can run a political campaign
with perfection. It helps the
politicians to have an idea about
how many chances they have to win
an election in a particular area.
• Statistics also help the news
channel to predict the winner of the
election. It also helps the political
parties to know how many
candidates are in their support in a
particular voting zone. In contrast,
it helps the country to predict the
future government.
Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies
Insurance
• Insurance is a vast industry.
There are hundreds of
insurance i.e. car insurance,
bike, life insurance, and many
more. The premium of
insurance is based on the
statistics. Insurance
companies use the statistics
that are collected from various
homeowners, drivers, vehicle
registration office, and many
more. They receive the data
from all these resources and
then decide the premium
amount.
Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies
Consumer Goods
• Statistics are widely used in
consumer goods products. The
reason is consumer goods are
daily used products. The
business use statistics to
calculate which consumer
goods are available in the
store or not.
• They also used stats to find
out which store needs the
consumer goods and when to
ship the products. Even
proper statistics decisions are
helping the business to make
massive revenue on consumer
goods.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Financial Market

• The financial market

completely relies on
the financial market.
All the stock prices
calculate with the
help of statistics. It
also helps the
investor to take the
decision of
investment in the
particular stock.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Sports
• There is lots of uses of statistics in
sports. Every sports require
statistics to make the sport more
effective. Statistics help the sport
person to get the idea about
his/her performance in the
particular sports.
• Nowadays sports are utilizing the
statistics data into the next level.
However the reason is a sport is
getting more popular and there are
various kinds of types of
equipment in the sports that are
used to collect data of various
factor. Statistics is used to get a
conclusion from the given data.
Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies
 History of
Statistics

Joefel T. Libo-on, Ph. D.

onemanbrave@gmail.com
-3000BC population in Babylonia and
China was recorded
-5000 years ago, Sumerian counter their
citizen for taxation
-Egyptians inquiries peoples occupation
-Moses 1491BC and David in 1017BC
conducted censuses
-Asoka (273-232BC) northern king of India,
describes the method of census

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

• Descriptive Statistics — using

data gathered on a group to
describe or reach conclusions
about that same group only

• Inferential Statistics — using

sample data to reach conclusions
about the population from which
the sample was taken
Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies
-Athenians and Greeks count their adult
male citizens during wartime and when
food supply was endangered
-Servius Tullius (6th king of Rome) institute
the gathering of population data in his
kingdom
-Roman Empire had return to the city of
his birth to be counted as Joseph and
Mary went to Bethlehem for such purpose.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Types of Descriptive Statistics

1. Measures of Frequency:
• * Count, Percent, Frequency
• * Shows how often something occurs
• * Use this when you want to show how
often a response is given

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Types of Descriptive Statistics

3. Measures of Dispersion or Variation

• * Range, Variance, Standard Deviation
• * Identifies the spread of scores by
stating intervals
• * Range = High-Low points
• * Variance or Standard Deviation =
difference between observed score and
mean
• * Use this when you want to show how
"spread out" the data are. It is helpful to
know when your data are so spread out
that it affects the mean

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Types of Descriptive Statistics

2. Measures of Central Tendency

• * Mean, Median, and Mode
• * Locates the distribution by
various points
• * Use this when you want to show how
an average or most commonly
indicated response

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Types of Descriptive Statistics

4. Measures of Position
• * Percentile Ranks, Quartile Ranks
• * Describes how scores fall in relation
to one another. Relies on standardized
scores
• * Use this when you need to compare
scores to a normalized score (e.g., a
national norm)

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Types of Inferential Statistics
• Linear Regression Analysis
• In this test, a linear algorithm is used to
understand the relationship between two
variables from the data set. One of those
variables is the dependent variable,
while there can be one or more
independent variables used. In simpler
terms, we try to predict the value of the
dependent variable based on the
available values of the independent
variables. This is usually represented by
using a scatter plot, although we can
also use other types of graphs too.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Types of Inferential Statistics

• Analysis of Variance
• This is another statistical method
which is extremely popular in data
science. It is used to test and analyse
the differences between two or more
means from the data set. The
significant differences between the
means are obtained, using this test.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Types of Inferential Statistics

• Analysis of Co-variance
• This is only a development on the Analysis
of Variance method and involves the
inclusion of a continuous co-variance in the
calculations. A co-variate is an independent
variable which is continuous, and are used
as regression variables. This method is
used extensively in statistical modelling, in
order to study the differences present
between the average values of dependent
variables.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Types of Inferential Statistics

• Statistical Significance (t-Test)

• A relatively simple test in inferential
statistics, this is used to compare the
means of two groups and understand
if they are different from each other.
The order of difference, or how
significant the differences are can be
obtained from this

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Types of Inferential Statistics
• Correlation Analysis
• Another extremely useful test, this is used to
understand the extent to which two variables
are dependent on each other. The strength of
any relationship, if they exist, between the two
variables can be obtained from this. You will
be able to understand whether the variables
have a strong correlation or a weak one. The
correlation can also be negative or positive,
depending upon the variables. A negative
correlation means that the value of one
variable decreases while the value of the other
increases and positive correlation means that
the value both variables decrease or increase
simultaneously.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Parametric And
Non-Parametric
Statistics

Joefel T. Libo-on, Ph. D.

• Parametric tests assume underlying statistical
distributions in the data. Therefore, several
conditions of validity must be met so that the
result of a parametric test is reliable. For
example, Student’s t-test for two independent
samples is reliable only if each sample follows a
normal distribution and if sample variances are
homogeneous.
• Nonparametric tests do not rely on any
distribution. They can thus be applied even if
parametric conditions of validity are not met.
• Parametric tests often have nonparametric
equivalents. You will find different parametric
tests with their equivalents when they exist
in this grid.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

 Quantitative
and Qualitative
Data

Joefel T. Libo-on, Ph. D.

Quantitative Data VS Qualitative Data
Quantitative data are measures of values or
counts and are expressed as numbers.

Quantitative data are data about numeric

variables (e.g. how many; how much; or how often).

Qualitative data are measures of 'types' and may

be represented by a name, symbol, or a number
code.

Qualitative data are data about categorical

variables (e.g. what type).

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

 Level of
Measurement

Joefel T. Libo-on, Ph. D.

Level of Measurement
• The way a set of data is measured is called its
level of measurement. Correct statistical
procedures depend on a researcher being
familiar with levels of measurement. Not every
statistical operation can be used with every
set of data. Data can be classified into four
levels of measurement. They are (from lowest
to highest level):
• Nominal scale level
• Ordinal scale level
• Interval scale level
• Ratio scale level

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Nominal Scale Level
• Data that is measured using a nominal scale
is qualitative. Categories, colors, names, labels and
favorite foods along with yes or no responses are
examples of nominal level data. Nominal scale data
are not ordered. Nominal scale data cannot be used in
calculations.
• Example:
• To classify people according to their favorite food, like
pizza, spaghetti, and sushi. Putting pizza first and
sushi second is not meaningful.
• Smartphone companies are another example of
nominal scale data. Some examples are Sony,
Motorola, Nokia, Samsung and Apple. This is just a
list and there is no agreed upon order. Some people
may favor Apple but that is a matter of opinion.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Ordinal Scale Level
• Data that is measured using an ordinal scale is
similar to nominal scale data but there is a big
difference. The ordinal scale data can be ordered.
Like the nominal scale data, ordinal scale data
cannot be used in calculations.
• Example:
• A list of the top five national parks in the United
States. The top five national parks in the United
States can be ranked from one to five but we
cannot measure differences between the data.
• A cruise survey where the responses to questions
about the cruise are “excellent,” “good,”
“satisfactory,” and “unsatisfactory.” These
responses are ordered from the most desired
response to the least desired. But the differences
between two pieces of data cannot be measured.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Interval Scale Level
• Data that is measured using the interval scale is
similar to ordinal level data because it has a definite
ordering but there is a difference between data. The
differences between interval scale data can be
measured though the data does not have a starting
point.
• Temperature scales like Celsius (C) and Fahrenheit (F)
are measured by using the interval scale. In both
temperature measurements, 40° is equal to 100°
minus 60°. Differences make sense. But 0 degrees
does not because, in both scales, 0 is not the absolute
lowest temperature. Temperatures like -10° F and -
15° C exist and are colder than 0.
• Interval level data can be used in calculations, but
comparison cannot be done. 80° C is not four times
as hot as 20° C (nor is 80° F four times as hot as 20°
F). There is no meaning to the ratio of 80 to 20 (or
four to one).
Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies
Interval Scale Level
• Example:
• Monthly income of 2000 part-time students in
Romblon
• Highest daily temperature in Romblon

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Ratio Scale Level
• Data that is measured using the ratio scale takes care of
the ratio problem and gives you the most information.
Ratio scale data is like interval scale data, but it has a 0
point and ratios can be calculated. You will not have a
negative value in ratio scale data.

• For example, four multiple choice statistics final exam

scores are 80, 68, 20 and 92 (out of a possible 100 points)
(given that the exams are machine-graded.) The data can
be put in order from lowest to highest: 20, 68, 80, 92.
There is no negative point in the final exam scores as the
lowest score is 0 point.

• The differences between the data have meaning. The score

92 is more than the score 68 by 24 points. Ratios can be
calculated. The smallest score is 0. So 80 is four times
20. If one student scores 80 points and another student
scores 20 points, the student who scores higher is 4 times
better than the student who scores lower.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Ratio Scale Level
• Example:
• Weight of 200 cancer patients in the past 5
months
• Height of 549 newborn babies
• Diameter of 150 donuts

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Level of Measurement

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

 Sampling
Method

Joefel T. Libo-on, Ph. D.

Probability Sampling
• Simple Random Sampling: Every member of
the population is equally likely to be selected)
• Systematic Sampling: Simple Random
Sampling in an ordered systematic way, e.g.
every 100th name in the yellow pages
• Stratified Sampling: Population divided into
different groups from which we sample
randomly
• Cluster Sampling: Population is divided into
(geographical) clusters - some clusters are
chosen at random - within cluster units are
chosen with Simple random Sampling.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Non-Probability Sampling Methods
• Convenience sampling
• Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest
method of sampling, because participants are
selected based on availability and willingness
to take part. Useful results can be obtained,
but the results are prone to significant bias,
because those who volunteer to take part may
be different from those who choose not to
(volunteer bias), and the sample may not be
representative of other characteristics, such
as age or sex. Note: volunteer bias is a risk of
all non-probability sampling methods.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Non-Probability Sampling Methods
• Quota sampling
• This method of sampling is often used by market
researchers. Interviewers are given a quota of subjects
of a specified type to attempt to recruit. For example,
an interviewer might be told to go out and select 20
adult men, 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10
teenage boys so that they could interview them about
their television viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen
would proportionally represent the characteristics of
the underlying population.
• Whilst this has the advantage of being relatively
straightforward and potentially representative, the
chosen sample may not be representative of other
characteristics that weren’t considered (a
consequence of the non-random nature of sampling).

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Non-Probability Sampling Methods
• Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling
• Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this
technique relies on the judgement of the researcher
when choosing who to ask to participate. Researchers
may implicitly thus choose a “representative” sample
to suit their needs, or specifically approach
individuals with certain characteristics. This
approach is often used by the media when canvassing
the public for opinions and in qualitative research.
• Judgement sampling has the advantage of being time-
and cost-effective to perform whilst resulting in a
range of responses (particularly useful in qualitative
research). However, in addition to volunteer bias, it is
also prone to errors of judgement by the researcher
and the findings, whilst being potentially broad, will
not necessarily be representative.
Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies
Non-Probability Sampling Methods
• Snowball sampling
• This method is commonly used in social sciences
when investigating hard-to-reach groups. Existing
subjects are asked to nominate further subjects
known to them, so the sample increases in size
like a rolling snowball. For example, when
carrying out a survey of risk behaviours amongst
intravenous drug users, participants may be
asked to nominate other users to be interviewed.
• Snowball sampling can be effective when a
sampling frame is difficult to identify. However,
by selecting friends and acquaintances of
subjects already investigated, there is a
significant risk of selection bias (choosing a large
number of people with similar characteristics or
views to the initial individual identified).

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Bias in sampling
There are five important potential sources of bias
that should be considered when selecting a sample,
irrespective of the method used. Sampling bias may
be introduced when:1
• Any pre-agreed sampling rules are deviated from
• People in hard-to-reach groups are omitted
• Selected individuals are replaced with others, for
example if they are difficult to contact
• There are low response rates
• An out-of-date list is used as the sample frame
(for example, if it excludes people who have
recently moved to an area)

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Data Collection

Joefel T. Libo-on, Ph. D.

A survey is a data collection method where you
select a sample of respondents from a large
population in order to gather information about
that population. The process of identifying
individuals from the population who you will
interview is known as sampling.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Sample Surveys
• To gather data through a survey, you construct a
questionnaire to prompt information from selected
respondents. When creating a questionnaire, you
should keep in mind several key considerations.
• First, make sure the questions and choices are
unambiguous.
• Second, make sure the questionnaire will be
completed within a reasonable amount of time.
• Finally, make sure there are no typographical errors.
To check if there are any problems with your
questionnaire, use it to interview a few people before
administering it to all respondents in your sample. We
refer to this process as pretesting.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Advantage and Disadvantage of Survey
• Using a survey to collect data offers you several
advantages. The main benefit is time and cost
savings because you only deal a sample, not the
large population. Another benefit is that when
you select your sample correctly, you will obtain
information of acceptable accuracy. Additionally,
surveys are adaptable and can be used to collect
data for governments, health care institutions,
businesses and any other environment where
data is needed.
• A major shortcoming of surveys occurs when you
fail to select a sample correctly; without an
appropriate sample, the results will not
accurately generalize the population.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Interview
• In-person Interviewing
• When you use this method, you meet with the
respondents face to face and ask questions. In-person
interviewing offers several advantages. This technique
has excellent response rates and enables you to
conduct interviews that take a longer amount of time.
Another benefit is you can ask follow-up questions to
responses that are not clear.
• In-person interviews do have disadvantages of which
you need to be aware. First, this method is expensive
and takes more time because of interviewer training,
transport, and remuneration. A second disadvantage
is that some areas of a population, such as
neighborhoods prone to crime, cannot be accessed
which may result in bias.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Interview
• Telephone Interviewing
• Using this technique, you call respondents over
the phone and interview them. This method offers
the advantage of quickly collecting data,
especially when used with computer-assisted
telephone interviewing. Another advantage is that
collecting data via telephone is cheaper than in-
person interviewing.
• One of the main limitations with telephone
interviewing it’s hard to gain the trust of
respondents. Due to this reason, you may not get
responses or may introduce bias. Since phone
interviews are generally kept short to reduce the
possibility of upsetting respondents, this method
may also limit the amount of data you can collect.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Interview
• Online Interviewing
• With online interviewing, you send an email
inviting respondents to participate in an
online survey. This technique is used widely
because it is a low-cost way of interviewing
many respondents. Another benefit is
anonymity; you can get sensitive responses
that participants would not feel comfortable
providing with in-person interviewing.
• When you use online interviewing, you face
the disadvantage of not getting a
representative sample. You also cannot seek
clarification on responses that are unclear.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Interview
• Mailed Questionnaire
• When you use this interviewing method, you send
a printed questionnaire to the postal address of
the respondent. The participants fill in the
questionnaire and mail it back. This interviewing
method gives you the advantage of obtaining
information that respondents may be unwilling to
give when interviewing in person.
• The main limitation with mailed questionnaires is
you are likely to get a low response rate. Keep in
mind that inaccuracy in mailing address, delays
or loss of mail could also affect the response rate.
Additionally, mailed questionnaires cannot be
used to interview respondents with low literacy,
and you cannot seek clarifications on responses.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Focus Groups
• When you use a focus group as a data collection
method, you identify a group of 6 to 10 people with
similar characteristics. A moderator then guides a
discussion to identify attitudes and experiences of the
group. The responses are captured by video recording,
voice recording or writing—this is the data you will
analyze to answer your research questions. Focus
groups have the advantage of requiring fewer
resources and time as compared to interviewing
individuals. Another advantage is that you can
request clarifications to unclear responses.
• One disadvantage you face when using focus groups
is that the sample selected may not represent the
population accurately. Furthermore, dominant
participants can influence the responses of others.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Observational Data Collection Methods
• In an observational data collection method,
you acquire data by observing any
relationships that may be present in the
phenomenon you are studying. There are
three types of observational methods that are
available to you as a researcher: cross-
sectional, case-control, and cohort.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Cross-sectional
In a cross-sectional study, you only collect data
on observed relationships once. This method
has the advantage of being cheaper and taking
less time as compared to case-control and
cohort. However, cross-sectional studies can
miss relationships that may arise over time.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Case-Control
Using a case-control method, you create cases
and controls and then observe them. A case has
been exposed to a phenomenon of interest while
a control has not. After identifying the cases
and controls, you move back in time to observe
how your event of interest occurs in the two
groups. This is why case-control studies are
referred to as retrospective

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Cohort Method
In a cohort method, you follow people with
similar characteristics over a period. This
method is advantageous when you are collecting
data on occurrences that happen over a long
period. It has the disadvantage of being costly
and requiring more time. It is also not suitable
for occurrences that happen rarely.

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

Experiments
• An experiment is a data collection method where
you as a researcher change some variables and
observe their effect on other variables. The
variables that you manipulate are referred to
as independent while the variables that change
as a result of manipulation are dependent
variable.
• The greatest advantage of using an experiment is
that you can explore causal relationships that an
observational study cannot. Additionally,
experimental research can be adapted to different
fields like medical research, agriculture,
sociology, and psychology. Nevertheless,
experiments have the disadvantage of being
expensive and requiring a lot of time.
Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies
Elementary Computation Practice
Mean
• Arithmetic Mean
• Weighted Mean
• Composite Mean
Median
Mode
Measures of Location
• Quartile
• Decile
• Percentile

Romblon State University – Institute of Graduate Studies

 Good luck!

Romblon State University – Institute of graduate Studies