|
|

÷



 



 

‡ The name India comes from the Sanskrit word sindhu

which was used to identify the ancient civilization in the
Indus Valley.
‡ This word became sinthos in Greek descriptions of the
area and then sindus in Latin.
‡ Corrupted to indus (means river), it was applied to
what constitutes today's Pakistan.
‡ Subsequently it was again modified to India to refer
generally to the land of river basins and clusters of
peoples from the Indus River in the west to the
Brahmaputra River in the east.
  
 |

‡ India is located between 8° N and 37° N. The

Tropic of Cancer passes through northern India.
‡ Such cities as Ahmadabad, Kolkata (Calcutta),
Karachi, Bhopal and Dhaka are located close to
the tropic.
‡ India, the world's seventh largest country, has an
area of 3,286,170 sq km (1,269,340 sq mi)
which represents 2.2 percent of the total land
area of the planet (57,900,000 sq mi).
  
 |
‡ There are three main landform regions in South Asia: Alpine chains,
sedimentary covers, and Gondwana Shield.
‡ „
ine system: The Himalayas form a major barrier to the movements
of air masses north and south and exceed 6,096 m (20,000 ft) in several
locations.
± Mount Everest (Nepal: Sagarmatha; Tibetan: Chomolungma) is the
world¶s highest mountain at 8,848 m (29,035 ft).
± The climate ranges from tropical lowlands to Arctic conditions in the high
altitudes of Mount Everest and other peaks.
± The Karakoram Pass provides access from north-central India through the
Himalayan and Hindu Kush mountains.
± The Khyber Pass in the west was used by invading groups.
± Population in the Himalayas is limited except in the Vale of Kashmir and
in Nepal (25,200,000 people).
± Bhutan has 900,000 and Sikkim less than one million. Sikkim has been
incorporated into India and is one of its provinces.
± Rice and wheat are the dominant grain crops.
  
 |
‡ |edimentary covers: The riverine plains of the Indus, the
Ganges (known as Ganga to Indians), and the Brahmaputra and
the coastal plains of the Indian Peninsula form this region.
± The North Indian Plain forms a belt of alluvial lowlands
stretching from Pakistan¶s Indus River on the west to the
Brahmaputra on the east.
± The Ganges River with its various tributaries is the major
river of northern India.
± This region of plains is from 320 to 500 km (200 to 300 mi)
wide and it extends through Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.
± The climate varies from arid in Punjab to tropical around the
Bay of Bengal.
± Soils (inceptisols) are derived from alluvium and they are
relatively fertile and generally level. In the arid areas,
irrigation has created environmental problems through
accumulation of salts (salinization).
  
 |
‡ ÷ondwana |hie d: This landform region extends southward
from the southern borders of the Ganges drainage area and
includes the lava covered Deccan Plateau.
± This plateau is framed on the north by the Vindhyas and the
Tapti and Godavari Rivers; on the west, the Western Ghats
(Hills) lining the Malabar Coast; on the east, the Eastern
Ghats paralleling the Coromandel Coast; at the southern
margin are the Blue Mountains which exceed 2,600 m (8,800
ft).
± The central portion of the Deccan Plateau has fertile soils
(vertiso s), derived from volcanic materials, primarily
cultivated with cotton.
± Elevations of the Deccan Plateau are approximately 305 to
450 m (1,000 to 1,500 ft).
± The coastal areas have a humid tropical climate with abundant
rain from the orogra
hic effect of the Ghats.
  

‡ The monsoon (the seasonal reversal of wind systems) is the dominant
climate force.
‡ With few exceptions the climate of Monsoon Asia is tropical or sub-
tropical.
‡ Air flows from land to sea with dry conditions in winter and a sea-to-land
movement in summer with humid conditions.
‡ The causes of the monsoon are the shifting of the jet stream north and
south of the Himalayas and the differential heating between land and
water.
‡ During the summer the jet stream moves north of the Himalayas allowing
moist air to penetrate the continent from the oceans.
‡ In winter, the jet stream is divided with one part south of the Himalayas.
‡ The air movement effectively prevents moisture from the oceans from
moving into the core area of India along the Ganges and dry conditions
predominate.
‡ Land heats quickly and loses the heat quickly while bodies of water heat
up slowly and lose heat slowly.
  
  |
å
ro
ica rainforest („m): Coromandel and Malabar
coastal regions. Controls-latitude and orographic
effect.
@ umid subtro
ica (Cwa): Ganges Valley.
3
ro
ica savanna („w): Western reaches of Vindhya
Ranges to Ganges Delta.
4 |ubtro
ica ste

e (B|h): Deccan Plateau.
Inadequate summer moisture. Rainshadow effect of
Western Ghats.
5 |ubtro
ica desert (BWh): Indus Valley and the
Thar (Great Indian) Desert.
     
The main vegetation regions of India are the following:
å Broad eaf deciduous: Extensive area in northwestern India and
Pakistan. Shrubs can grow to a maximum of one meter (three feet)
singly or in groups.
@ Broad eaf deciduous: Same as above except trees grow to a
minimum of one meter singly or in groups. It surrounds the area
above.
3 Broad eaf deciduous ( terai): An extensive area from the Gangetic
Plains to southern India. Terai Lowlands in Nepal.
4 Broad eaf evergreen: Malabar Coast, Coromandel Coast and Sri
Lanka.
5 |emi-deciduous: broad eaf evergreen and broad eaf deciduous:
They are found in an area inward from the Malabar Coast and the
lower valley of the Ganges.
6 Broad eaf deciduous trees. Bihar and Orissa. Broad eaf
evergreen, shrub form, minimum height one meter (3 feet).
  | 
|
The main soil regions of India are the following:
å „ridiso s: Northwestern India and Pakistan. Salts may
accumulate on or near the surface of these soils which are poor
in organic matter.
@ „ fiso s: Northern sections of the Gangetic plain and extending
to Kathiawar Peninsula. They are also found in area south of
20 degrees N latitude and along the Coromandel Coast.
3 Ince
tiso s: They are found in the Gangetic plains and the
Malabar Coast. They are immature and weakly developed
soils.
4 ertiso s: An extensive area from north of Mumbai (Bombay)
to the Ganges River. These soils are rich in clays and crack
deeply during dry periods.
5  tiso s: They are found in northeastern India (Bihar and
Orissa).
   |
 |
India has a rather poor resource base. The country does not lead the
world in any of the important minerals or other sources of energy
useful for industrialization and development.
‡ India is the second largest producer of grains. The possibility for
expanding production of grains remains very low, despite gains.
Low productivity per person in the agricultural sector accentuate
the problems of population, making it difficult to increase
production.
‡ India has the largest deposit of high-grade iron ore in the world.
In Bihar state alone, a single range is estimated to hold nearly
three billion tons of iron ore. Iron ore deposits are also important
in the state of Karnataka. India produces 5.6 percent of the
world's iron ore and has 6.6 percent of the world's reserves in
iron ore.
   |
 |
‡ India produces 3.8 percent of the world's coal. Coal and
steel are produced in the Damodar Valley fields of
northeastern India which account for more than 50 percent
of coal production. Limited coking-coal deposits are found
in Chota Nagpur.
‡ India has discovered oil deposits in the Bay of Bengal
which hold promise for further expansion.
‡ India has a great hydroelectric potential, provided dams are
constructed to exploit the rivers of the country.
‡ India has important deposits of uranium; phosphates in the
Thar Desert, and manganese (5.2 percent) in the central
Deccan plateau and eastern Coromandel Coast.
‡ India produces 2.5 percent of the world's bauxite, and it
produces 5.2 percent of the world's chromite.
   

  
‡ India had 1,068,600,000 people in 2003 (17% of the
world total), the world's second largest country in
population after China.
‡ India has a rate of natural increase of 1.7% (compared
to a 1.3% world rate) and a projected population of
1,363,000,000 by 2025.
‡ At this rate, it is only a matter of time before India
becomes the world's most populous country.
‡ The largest clusters of the Indian population are found
in the Gangetic plains in the north and the coastal areas
of the country. These are the most fertile parts of India.
   

  

‡ There was an increase of 19,100,000 people from 2002

to 2003.
‡ From 2001 to 2002, the absolute population increase of
16,500,000.
‡ In 2000, India had 1,002,100,000 people, while in 1920
the population of the country was 250,000,000.
‡ The population of the country quadrupled in 80 years.
‡ The Ganges-Brahmaputra and Indus River systems are
crucial lifelines for hundreds of millions of people.
   

  

‡ In India, population arithmetic density (in 2003) was

325 persons per sq km (842 persons per sq mi);

hysio ogica density (in 2000) was at 557 persons per
square kilometer (1442 persons per square mile).
‡ In neighboring Bangladesh the arithmetic density is
approximately 2.5 times as high, 1,040 persons per sq
km (2,639 persons per sq mi).
   

  
‡ In 1952, the Indian government adopted family planning as a national policy.
± By 1961, there were 4,165 family planning clinics.
± As a part of the government campaign to limit the number of children, the
government has put up billboards with the following slogan: "four is a
family, five is a crowd."
‡ In 1976, a national population policy was adopted including:
± the increase of the age of marriage for females to 18 years and for males to
21,
± tying financial grants from the federal government to the state
governments to their performance in limiting births,
± provision of sex education in schools,
± expansion of compensation for voluntary sterilization,
± and use of incentives by governments to encourage people to limit their
family size.
‡ In 1977, this policy was made voluntary following the collapse of the Indira
Gandhi government. Only 8% of federal assistance was tied to performance
on birth control by states.
  
 
‡ In 2003, India was one of the least urbanized of the large in
population countries of the world, given that only 28 percent of
the country's population resided in urban areas.
‡ Although the proportion classified as urban is small, in absolute
numbers India had 299,208,000 people residing in urban centers.
‡ Mumbai (formerly Bombay), with 11,914,398 people, is the
largest city of India in terms of population. Delhi ranks second
with 9,817,439 followed by Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) with
4,580,544.
‡ 11 Indian cities have populations in excess of one million
inhabitants.
‡ The largest metropolitan area populations of India are:
± Mumbai 16,368,084
± Kolkata 13,216,546
± Delhi 12,791,458
  
 
‡ Indian urbanization is accelerating, and urban India is
today growing more than twice as rapidly as the
country's overall population.
‡ Attendant problems include poor sanitation, street
dwellers, and riots.
‡ In 1984, riots between Hindu and Moslems in Mumbai
left hundreds dead.
‡ Reasons for migration to cities (interna migration):
± Loosening of ties between poor peasants and their villages.
± Widespread establishment of village men or "caste brothers"
who encourage friends and relatives to move to the cities.
  
 
‡ The location of India's modern urban centers is a reflection of
co onia ism.
‡ The British founded and developed Kolkata (Calcutta), Mumbai
(Bombay), and Chennai (Madras) as regional trading centers and as
coastal focal points for their colony's export and import traffic.
‡ In Chennai (Madras), they built a fort in 1640.
‡ In Mumbai (Bombay) in 1644, they fostered the growth of a port-city
that was closest to Britain and Europe. Mumbai is located on the west
coast of India
‡ Kolkata (Calcutta) lies 130 kilometers (80 miles) from the east on the
oogh y River, and a myriad of Ganges River delta channels connect
it to its hinterland.
‡ Kolkata (Calcutta) lost a large part of its hinterland to Pakistan at the
time of the partitioning of British India. This area is now a part of
Bangladesh.
‡ An 1812 rebellion forced the British to move the colonial capital from
Kolkata (Calcutta) to the safer interior city of New Delhi, built
adjacently to the old Mogul headquarters of Delhi.
  
 
‡ Population densities in urban centers are very high.
‡ Kolkata (Calcutta) averages 13,900 persons per sq km (36,000
persons per sq mi) for its entire area of 1036 sq km (400 sq mi).
‡ By comparison, New York City averages 1544 persons per sq km
(4,000 persons per sq mi).
‡ In Kolkata (Calcutta), an estimated 200,000 residents are known
as street
eo
e and sleep under bridges, railway overpasses, in
doorways or wherever they can find a spot.
‡ Slightly better off are the residents of the bustees, hovels made
of cardboard, burlap, or other scrap material.
‡ An estimated 2,000,000 people live in bustees.
  
 
‡ Indian urbanization reveals several regional patterns:
± The northern heartland, the west (wheat growing area) is
more urbanized than the east (where rice forms the main
staple crop).
± In the west urbanization may be as much as 40%; in the east
only about 10% of the population resides in urban centers.
‡ India's larger cities (more than 100,000) are concentrated in three
regions:
(1) the northern plains from Punjab to the Ganges Delta
(2) the Bombay-Ahmadabad area
(3) the southern end of the peninsula, which includes Madras
and Bangalore
‡ Large cities(more than one million) outside these regions include
centrally positioned Nagpur and Hyderabad (capital of Andhra
Pradesh).
 º




  

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‡ India is indeed a Babel of languages. In 1947, the Indian subcontinent
had 550 princely states, 900 separate dialects and 15 major languages.
‡ The two major linguistic families are the Indo-Euro
ean and the
Dravidian
‡ Languages that are members of the Indo-European family are spoken
in the central and northern parts of the country, and languages that
belong to the Dravidian family are spoken in southern India.
‡ Dravidian languages are spoken by about 25 percent of the Indian
population. They include Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam.
‡ Today India has fourteen official languages including Hindi and
English (associate official). Hindi is the official and predominant
language of India.
‡ indi was one of the å4 anguages given national status by the Indian
constitution, 10 in the north and 4 in the Dravidian south.
‡ Before World War II, the British recognized 179 official languages and
544 dialects (total=723).
‡ English would remain a ingua franca when Hindi could not serve as
a medium of communication at government and administrative levels.
  



 


  


 

 
  
 
   
  
 
  
 
 

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‡ Re igions:
‡ Hinduism 81.3% ‡Sikh 1.9%
‡Buddhist 0.8%
‡ Muslim 12.0%
‡Jain 0.4%
± Sunni 9.0%
‡Zoroastrian 0.01%
± Shiite 3.0%
‡Other 1.3%
‡ Christian 2.3%
± Protestant 1.1%
± Roman Catholic 1.0%
  



 

‡ induism:
‡ This system of beliefs forms the cultural basis of the
Indian society, which is highly stratified.
‡ The caste system is an integral part of Hinduism.
‡ A caste is a hereditary social group limited to persons
of the same rank, occupation, etc., and having
distinctive mores.
‡ Dharma in Hinduism is the individual duty of each
person. Dharma is related to the rigid social order of
India (caste system), since the caste to which one is
born in determines the duty that must be followed.
  



 

‡ induism:
‡ Four broad castes exist in Hindu Society:
å Brahmans: are the teachers, religious leaders,
and scholars.
@ shatriya: political leaders and warriors.
3 aisya: are engaged in trades or farming.
4 |udra: are the lowest class and provide
services to support the society.
  



 

‡ induism:
‡ Each of these four broad groups is broken down into
subgroups whose relative status is dependent upon their extent
of ritua
urity (avoidance of contact with unclean objects).
‡ Those dealing with death or decaying materials were in the
lowest classes of the sudra.
‡ At the very bottom of the order are the untouchab es
(harijans), so called, because in the past (and among many
Indians today) it is believed that they would contaminate
others¶ ritual purity if there was any personal contact between
them.
‡ Untouchables lived in separate communities, had separate
wells for water, and in the 19th century, were prohibited from
using roads used by other castes
  



 

‡ induism:
‡ Aspect of life related to the cycle of life, death, and
rebirth, or reincarnation.
‡ For the Hindu, life is not simply a progression from
birth until death, but a progression in a circular fashion
until freedom is obtained from the cycle.
‡ Freedom from continued reincarnation can be obtained
through nirvana, which consists of obtaining spiritual
unification with the cosmic forces, and being liberated
from the human processes of death and birth.
  



 

‡ Associated with nirvana and reincarnation is the

concept of karma, or law of the deed.
‡ arma specifies that for each good act there will be a
reward and for each evil act there will be a punishment.
‡ An individual's status in the caste system reflects
actions in the previous incarnations.
‡ It is impossible to move upward in the caste system
through education or acquisition of wealth or social
change, since a specific caste is a result of previous
actions.
‡ |uttee is a Hindu practice whereby a widow immolated
herself on the funeral pyre of her husband.
  | 
 

‡ Aryan invaders from Western Asia conquered the early Indus

Valley civilization around 3500 BC.
‡ They pushed settlement frontiers east into the Gangetic Plain and
south into the center of the peninsula.
‡ India¶s culture developed from this beginning, including the
Hindu religion and the caste system ± rigid social stratification.
‡ Buddhism was dominant during the Mauryan Empire (3rd century
BC to 2nd century AD).
‡ Buddhism soon declined in South Asia, remaining strong only in
Sri Lanka, where it still prevails.
‡ Buddhism today is centered mainly in East and Southeast Asia.
  | 
 

‡ Arabs invaded northwestern India shortly after 700 AD, bringing with
them Islam.
‡ After the 10th century, Islam was a strong influence in India, driving
out Buddhism, but not Hinduism, which remained dominant in India¶s
Ganges core area and southern India.
‡ Muslims remain a sizeable minority (slightly less than 15%) in India,
and form overwhelming majorities in Pakistan and Bangladesh.
‡ The Mogul dynasty was founded in 1526.
‡ Taxation of land was based on granting rights to tax to a local
authority.
‡ Under the Mogul system the individual peasant retained ownership of
the land.
‡ The Mogul dynasty collapsed in 1707, leaving a kingdom without a
ruler and presenting the opportunity for European domination.
  | 
 

‡ European contacts in south Asia were made by the Portuguese,

Dutch, French, and British.
‡ All European colonial powers established trading posts for spices
and fabrics, but eventually Britain emerged as the dominant
colonial power in South Asia.
‡ The period of British colonial dominance in India can be divided
into two parts :
± Period I (1757-1857). Domination of India by the British
East India Company.
± Period II (1858-1947). India as a British Crown Colony.
‡ In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted exclusive rights to the spice
trade of Asia to the British East India Com
any, under which
India began to come under British control.
  | 
 
‡ By 1858, nearly 2/3 of the subcontinent was ruled directly by the
company; the remaining inaccessible areas were controlled by
more than 500 princely states.
‡ Rebellion of Indian troops against the British in 1857 culminated
in a decision to strip the British East India Company of its
monopoly and proclaim the subcontinent a crown colony (1858).
‡ Britain exercised outright political control over India from 1857
to 1947.
‡ The British introduced many innovations to India, but forced the
colonial economy of India to become a raw material producer
subservient to the English master.
  | 
 

‡ The impact of colonialism on India can be summarized

as follows:
± Pros:
‡ Creation of a civil service patterned after the British model
which became part of the new independent governments
that were set up upon the departure of the British.
‡ Development of an extensive railroad and road
transportation system. Although the development of this
system had as its objective the movement of troops to
troubled spots, India inherited a well planned and
developed system.
‡ Improvements in sanitation and simple hygienic practices
that led to the beginnings of rapid population increases.
  | 
 
Cons:
‡ The British East India Company granted the village representatives deeds to
the lands from which they had collected taxes under the Moguls. Thus, the
village representatives became landlords charging cash rent. Property
ultimately ended in the hands of urban moneylenders as peasants borrowed at
exorbitant interest rates to pay taxes, and a large rural landless class emerged.
‡ Peasants produced crops demanded by the British East India Company
including coffee, tea, sugar, spices, cotton, indigo, and jute. As British
influence in Asia spread to China, opium also became an important crop, as it
could be resold or traded in China for additional high-value spices. Because
crops encouraged by the British East India Company were for export, an
asymmetrica re ationshi
developed in trade between the Indian
subcontinent and the British East India Company.
‡ Destruction of a large Indian textile handicraft industry, because of the
production of a surplus of textile goods by the mechanized British factories.
‡ Maintenance of the cultural fragmentation of the subcontinent through the
application of indirect ru e.
  | 
 

‡ Indians began calling for independence from Britain in the 1930s

and 1940s.
‡ At the same time, Muslims Indians were demanding a separate
state from Hindu India.
‡ The British left India in 1947.
‡ Before withdrawing they separated their former territory into
Hindu India and Islamic Pakistan; West Pakistan (now Pakistan)
and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh, and independent from
Pakistan).
‡ This partitioning involved mass migrations of approximately
15,000,000 people.
‡ It also caused conflict and social stresses that persist to the
present day.
      
ºrimary |ector:
‡ Indian agriculture is inefficient and labor intensive.
‡ Animals are frequently used for power.
‡ The village is the focus of life for 74 percent of the Indian
population with an estimated 580,000 villages.
‡ Approximately 2/3 of India's huge working population (63
percent) depends directly on the land for its livelihood.
‡ Substantial progress toward modernization has been made in the
Punjab's wheat zone.
‡ In the early 1980s more than 1/4 of India's cultivated area was
still owned by only 4 percent of the country's farming families.
‡ Half of all rural families either owned as little as a half hectare
(1.25 acres) or less, or no land at all.
‡ Land consolidation efforts have had only limited success, except
in the states of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
      
‡ Xajor cro
zones:
å Wheat. Dry northwest notably in the Punjab and neighboring areas of the
Upper Ganges. Many gains from the Green Revolution through the
introduction of high-yielding varieties developed in Mexico.
@ Rice Moist east and a summer monsoon drenched south. More than 1/4 of
all of India's farmland lies under rice cultivation, most of it in the states of
Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and eastern Uttar Pradesh. This area
has more than 100 cm (40 inches) of rainfall. India has the largest acreage of
rice among the world's countries. Yields per hectare are still low at below
1,000 kg (900 lbs./acre), however.
3 Coconut Malabar Coast. (Kerala)
4 Xi et Southwestern India. A cereal grass, Setaria italica, extensively
cultivated in the East and in southern Europe for its small seed or grain, used
as food for man and fowls, but in the U.S. grown chiefly for fodder.
5 ÷roundnut Kathiawar Peninsula.
6 Cotton West-Central India (Deccan Plateau).
 Chick ºeas Northwest.
 º antation Northeast.
      

‡ Givestock:
‡ India has more livestock than any other country in the
world.
± Cows - 200,000,000
± water buffalo - 60,000,000
± Goats and sheep - 60,000,000
± Horses, donkeys, and elephants - 5,000,000
‡ Sheep are of major importance in the drier west where
the Islamic population is clustered.
‡ Water buffalo is dominant in the Ganges Delta and
coastal regions.
‡ Cattle (particularly the Brahman or Zebu breeds) are
found throughout India.
      
‡ Cattle are an integral element of the Indian agricultural economy.
± They are the primary source of draft power (plowing, pulling carts, grinding
grain, and a host of other tasks).
± Cattle graze on forage which would otherwise be wasted during a dry season.
± Cattle consume secondary agriculture byproducts (straw, rice husks, and corn
stalks).
± Cattle produce an estimated 771,000,000 metric tons (850,000,000 tons) of cow
dung, the principle source of domestic fuel a year.
± Dung is also mixed with mud and used for plaster; also a major source of
fertilizer.
± Cattle also produce most of India's milk (the bulk of which comes from the
water buffalo).
± When a cow dies, it is consumed by the untouchables (who have no prohibitions
about consuming beef when it is available) of the large Hindu population.
± Cow hides are a major source of leather.
± The maintenance of the large numbers of cows and buffalo is a completely
rational activity in the Indian agricultural economy.
      
‡ ÷reen Revo ution describes the development of extremely high-
yielding grain crops that allow major increases in food
production, particularly in subtropical areas.
‡ In 1953, scientists developed rust-resistant dwarf wheats which
doubled Mexico's per acre production in the next decade.
‡ After a major drought in India in 1965, Mexican dwarf wheat
was widely planted in the Punjab region, producing dramatic
increases in wheat yields.
‡ The improved rice (IR)- IR-8 was spotted in 1965 at the Los
Baßos research institute in the Philippines, which was set up
using aid from the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations.
‡ Its first harvest, from 60 trial tons of seeds, produced a six-fold
increase of rice under field conditions.
‡ About 10% of India's paddy land is now planted with IR-8
varieties.
      
‡ ÷reen Revo ution benefits:
± Two to four times the yield of indigenous grains.
± A shortened growing season allows two crops per year.
 Miracle grains" have a wider tolerance for climatic
variations.
‡ ÷reen Revo ution
rob ems
± Need for high application of fertilizer and insecticide, and in
the case of rice, there is a need for copious irrigation.
± "Miracle grains" have been adopted in the most prosperous
areas and among the most prosperous farmers. As a result,
interregional and social gaps have widened.
± Traditional marketing patterns have been upset. Thailand and
Myanmar (Burma) have found their traditional markets
disappearing, and Japan now looks for exports.
      
‡ |econdary sector:
‡ At the time of independence (1947), Indian industries emphasized
textiles and food processing.
‡ Gandhi championed development of the cottage industries that
existed prior to the intervention of Britain.
± A cottage industry involves small scale production using high
labor inputs.
± Cottage industries are very important because they are labor
intensive.
± They employ 40 individuals for every one employed in a large
automated factory producing the same products.
± A total of 750 products is produced by small industries which
use <=$100,000 in capital. (Receivers, tools, plumbing
fittings, etc.).
‡ Manufacturing employs only 13% of the labor force.
      
Xanufacturing Regions:
å o kata (Ca cutta) and Jamshed
ur form an
emerging industrial region in northeastern India.
± Calcutta forms the center of the Bihar-Bengal area where
jute manufacturing dominates, but engineering, chemical
and cotton industries also exist. Jute: a strong, coarse fiber
used for making burlap, gunny, and cordage; it is obtained
from two East Indian plants-Corchorus capsularis and
Corchorus olitorius of the linden family.
± The Jamshed
ur region 240 km (150 mi) west of Calcutta
has the Tata Steel Works, India¶s single largest steel making
complex (Indian Ruhr).
± In the nearby Chota-Nag
ur district, coal mining and iron
and steel manufactures have developed, and Bhi ai is a
growing nucleus of heavy industry.
      

Xanufacturing Regions:
@ Western Zone-Xumbai (Bombay)-„hmadabad:
This Maharashtra, Gujarat area specializes in cotton
and chemicals with some engineering and food
processing, automobiles, and petrochemicals.
3 |outheastern Zone- Chennai (Xadras): specializing
in textiles.
4 Banga ore supports diversified electrical
manufacturing, machine tools, the construction
industry, and food processing.
  

 

‡ It is remarkable that India has been able to survive such

centrifuga forces (divisive).
‡ Forces that tend to bind a political system together are call
centri
eta forces. Among the most important centripetal
forces of India are:
± The cultural and religious strength of Hinduism
± Strong, charismatic leaders (Gandhi, Nehru, Gandhi).
± The flexibility on the language issue that was
demonstrated by the federal government, an ability to
tolerate individuality in its states, and its capacity to
modify and re-modify the federal map.
  

 
‡ India is the world's largest and most complex federal democracy, and it
forms a federation of @ states and 6 union territories (
s) and 1
National Capital Territory (NCT).
± The UTs are small in area and population and they come under
direct federal control.
‡ The capital of modern India is New De hi, located in the NCT, along
with Delhi. This area has more than 13,000,000 people.
‡ India became independent on August 15, 1947, following partition of
British India (West and East Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka).
‡ As many as 15 million people crossed the su
erim
osed boundary
which was determined on the criterion that all contiguous civil divisions
and territories with Moslem majorities had to be incorporated in the
Muslim state (Pakistan).
‡ The Taj Mahal is a remnant of the Muslim presence in India.
‡ As early as 1953, the federal government yielded to demands for the
creation of a Telugu speaking state from Tamil dominated Madras;
thus, the state of Andhra Pradesh was formed.
  

 

‡ In 1960, the state of Bombay was fragmented into two

linguistic states, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
‡ Naga peoples (less than half million) in the east put up a
struggle against federal authority and local Assamese
administration and Naga and was established as a state in
1961.
‡ The religion |ikhism developed and is still based in the
Punjab region of India. The Sikh religious capital is
„mritsar
‡ In the northwest, the Sikhs demanded the breakup of the
original state of Punjab into a Sikh dominated west (now
ºunjab) and a Hindu east (now aryana).
‡ Pressure for greater regional autonomy continues in several
other parts of India especially Assam and
ami Nadu
  

 

‡ Three new states were created in November 2000.

Those were the following: Chhattisgarh (11/1/00),
ttarancha (11/8/00), and Jharkhand (11/15/00).
‡ Chhattisgarh was carved out of the eastern districts of
the state of Madhya Pradesh in order to accommodate
the demands of the local people who felt exploited and
without a voice in state government.
‡ Uttaranchal covers the northern hilly sections of the
state of Uttar Pradesh, the largest state in population
(160,000,000). It was granted statehood because the
environment and the ways of life are very different
from those prevalent in the Ganges Valley.
  

 

‡ ashmir:
‡ The state of Jammu and Kashmir is located adjacent to
India, Pakistan, China, and Afghanistan.
‡ The control of Jammu and Kashmir is still under
dispute by India and Pakistan.
‡ At the time of independence (1947) this state was one
of the 562 princely states in India.
‡ The population was 4,750,000, about half of them lived
in the Vale of Kashmir where the capital of Srinagar is
also located.
‡ About 45% of the population lived in Jammu with the
remainder scattered in the high mountains
  

 
‡ ashmir:
‡ The main conflict between India and Pakistan arose over the sovereignty of the
state of Kashmir, because the ruler was Hindu and about 75% of the population
was Muslim.
‡ While at the time of independence the maharajah chose autonomy over union
with either India or Pakistan, soon he was faced with a Muslim rebellion against
Hindu rule.
‡ The maharajah invited the assistance of India and Pakistani troops came the
help of the Muslims.
‡ The war between India and Pakistan lasted for more than one year and the
negotiation of the cease fire line left about 80% of the state¶s population under
the control of India.
‡ Pakistan is worried that India, by controlling the Kashmir, controls the vital
water resources of the Indus River, which also flows through Kashmir.
‡ Moreover, Kashmir presents the same situation that existed at the time of
independence with the separation of Muslims and Hindus into Pakistan and
India.
‡ The recent nuclear tests of both countries do not bode well for accommodation
any time soon.
 |
‡ Pakistan is the second largest country in southern Asia, after
India, both in area and population.
‡ With 149,100,000 people in 2003, Pakistan is one of the world's
ten largest countries in population.
‡ As a dry-world country, Pakistan owes much of its existence to
the waters of the exotic Indus River that originates in the
northern reaches of the country to flow through the middle of the
country and empty in the Arabian Sea.
‡ For the most part, Pakistanis live around this river like the
Egyptians cluster around the Nile.
‡ Pakistan is an Islamic Republic.
‡ Pakistan is bordered by Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, China and
India.
 |
‡ Pakistan lacks any major resources with the exception of
some natural gas and chromite in Baluchistan and minor iron
deposits which are used in a small plant at Multan.
‡ Pakistan is a highly rural society with only 34 percent of the
population classified as urban (world average is 47 percent).
‡ The region called the ºunjab was partitioned in 1947.
Consequently, both India and Pakistan have areas called the
Punjab. In Pakistan, the Punjab is the core area of the
country.
‡ The major urban centers of the country are arachi and
Gahore Both are located within the Punjab.
‡ Karachi with 4,901,627 (5,300,000) inhabitants was
Pakistan's first capital city and major seaport.
 |
‡ Lahore with 2,707,215 (3,025,000) residents is located very close to
the sensitive boundary with India.
‡ Founded in the first or second century A.D., Lahore became
established as a great Moslem center during the Mogul period.
‡ In 1959, after just over a decade as the federal capital of Pakistan,
Rawa
indi became the new capital, until Is amabad was
completed near the boundary of Kashmir.
‡ Islamabad is a forward ca
ita , a manifestation of Pakistan's
determination to emphasize its presence in the contested north.
‡ Agriculture is labor intensive and the output is low.
‡ In |ind where large estates exist, yields are low because of
outdated irrigation systems and the paucity of incentives for
landless peasants.
‡ The most significant industry of Pakistan is textiles that use the
country's substantial cotton production.
 |
‡ The political geography of Pakistan has been a turbulent one
since the inception of the country in 1947.
‡ At first it was the conflict with India; later the secession of East
Pakistan and the formation of Bangladesh (1971); then the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan and the 3,000,000 of refugees that fled
into Pakistan.
‡ An additional problem is the manifestation of irredentism in
Baluchistan along the border with Iran and Pathanistan which is
along the border with Afghanistan.
‡ Pakhtuns (also called Pashtuns, Pathans, or Pushtuns) constitute
about 50% of the population of Afghanistan (28,700,000) and
have encouraged those living in the northwestern region of
Pakistan to demand their own state of Pakhtunistan (Pathanistan).
‡ Pakistan's response to this problem was to hasten integration
through education, improved communications, and other
facilities, but Afghan irredentism continues.
 
 |

‡ Bangladesh became independent from Pakistan in 1971.

‡ Until then, Bangladesh was called East Pakistan and
formed a part of Pakistan, since the partition of the
British India (1947).
‡ East Pakistan provided most of Pakistan¶s foreign
exchange, mostly from jute.
‡ Bangladesh is a comparatively small country in area,
130,173 sq km (50,260 sq mi) with 146,700,000 people
(Ohio's area is 40,953 sq mi).
 
 |
‡ Territorially, Bangladesh is surrounded by India on all sides, with
the exception of a short stretch of boundary that adjoins Myanmar
(Burma) on the southeast and the southern coastal area.
‡ Bangladesh occupies the deltaic plains of the Ganges-Brahmaputra
river system which empties into the Bay of Bengal through
numerous distributaries.
‡ In the hinterland of Chittagong, the flat terrain of the floodplains
rises into hills and mountains.
‡ Bangladesh has a very high proportion of its land that is
agriculturally useful.
‡ The land is fertile, with rice, jute, and tea being the major crops.
‡ In most places three harvests of rice per year are possible; however,
harvests are not big enough to support the huge population,
especially following the war of secession.
 
 |
‡ Cyc ones (as hurricane or ty
hoon type storms are
called there) constitute a major natural hazard because
much of southern Bangladesh lies less than four m (13
feet) above sea level.
‡ In early 1971, a devastating tropical cyclone exacted
600,000 lives.
‡ It was the second greatest natural disaster of the 20th
century after the 1976 earthquake that killed upwards
of 700,000 in Tangshan, China.
‡ Resources of natural gas, coal, timber, and several
minerals remain unexploited because of the focus on
the fighting of malnutrition.
 
 |
‡ In 2003 the population of Bangladesh was 146,700,000
-- as compared to 128,100,000 in 2000.
‡ The country has an average annual growth of 2.2
percent and a density of 1,019 persons per sq. km
(2,639 persons per sq. mi).
‡ For comparison purposes, the world density is 47
persons per sq. km (122 persons per sq. mi.)and the
U.S. density is 30 persons per sq. km (78 persons/sq..
mi).
‡ The population of Bangladesh is 87 percent Islamic and
11 percent Hindu.
 
 |

‡ Bangladesh is one of the world's poorest countries with

a per capita income in 2000 of only $350.
‡ It lacks any major urban centers with the exception of
Dhaka, the centrally positioned capital, which has
3,637,892 people (6,537,308 in the metropolitan area);
and the port of Chittagong with 1,566,070 residents
(2,342,662 in the metropolitan area).
‡ Only 23 percent of the people live in towns and cities.
 |
|  


| 
A tier of landlocked countries occupy the
mountainous zone between India and China.
‡ The independent kingdoms of Ne
a and
Bhutan are in the east of this frontier.
‡ |ikkim, which was wedged between Nepal and
Bhutan, was taken over by India in 1975 and
made into a state.
‡ This development underscores the vulnerability
of these kingdoms.
  

‡ The country of Nepal has three distinct zones:

1. The Terai, a southern, subtropical, and fertile lowland.
2. A central zone which comprises the Himalayan
foothills and is dominated by swift flowing streams
and deep valleys.
3. A northern zone which includes the lofty peaks of the
Himalayas including Mount Everest (29,035 ft).
  

‡ The core of the country is in the Valley of

athmandu, where the capital of the country is
located.
‡ Hinduism is the official religion, a blend of
Hindu and Buddhist elements.
‡ Although a dozen languages are spoken, about
90% of the people speak Nepali, a language
related to Hindi.
‡ The total population of the country is 25,200,000
in 2003.
  

‡ Nepal faces serious economic problems that stem from

environmental degradation.
‡ Deforestation is particularly severe in the alpine
woodlands¶ regions of the country.
‡ A growing population exacerbated these problems.
‡ About 95% of the population is engaged in subsistence
farming (rice, wheat, millet, and corn).
‡ Nepal has substantial tourist industry because of the
Himalayas.
  

‡ Following tensions in the 1980s, the country became a

constitutional monarchy.
‡ But as the bloody royal killings have demonstrated, the
country is far from a tranquil place.
‡ The southern Terai zone is much more similar to
neighboring India than the core of the country.
‡ The Nepalese are fearful of Indian domination.
‡ Nepal has problematic relations with Bhutan over the
treatment of the Nepalese minority in the country.
 

‡ In Bhutan, the king rules with absolute power, although
officially the country is a constitutional monarchy.
‡ Bhutan has considerable mineral resources, and forestry,
hydroelectricity, and tourism have a great potential.
‡ Isolation and distance from world markets have prevented
economic development in this landlocked buffer state that is
sandwiched between India and China.
‡ The dominant religion is Buddhism.
‡ Ethnic tensions between the declining Nepalese minority
and the Bhutia have resulted in the exodus of Nepalese
refugees from Bhutan in the 1990s.
‡ The capital of the kingdom of Bhutan is
him
hu with
about 50,000 people in the northwestern part of the country.
‡ The total population is 900,000 in 2003.
 |

‡ Until 1975, Nepal¶s eastern neighbor,

|ikkim, was an independent country.
‡ That year, the overwhelming majority of
the people voted to join India.
 |

‡ Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) is a compact, pear-shaped island
located off the southern tip of India.
‡ It has been sovereign since 1948.
‡ Population was 18,900,000 people in 2003.
‡ This is neither a Hindu nor a Moslem country; the majority --
some 75% of its population -- is Buddhist.
‡ Unlike India or Pakistan, Sri Lanka is a plantation country (a
legacy of European colonialism).
‡ The majority of Sri Lanka's people are not Dravidian, but are of
Aryan origin with a historical link to ancient northern India.
‡ Emigrants from India brought to Ceylon the Buddhist religion
and irrigation techniques.
‡ Today their descendants, the |inha ese, speak a language
belonging to the Indo-Aryan language family of northern India.
 |

‡ The Dravidian from southern India introduced the
Hindu way of life, brought the Tamil languages to Sri
Lanka and today constitute 12% of the total population.
‡ Their numerical strength increased in the second half of
the 19th century, when the British brought thousands of
Tamils from the mainland to work on the plantations.
‡ The Tamils practice the Hindu religion.
‡ Sri Lanka sought the repatriation of these people in an
agreement with India.
‡ In 1978, Tamil was granted the status of a national
language in Sri Lanka.
 |

‡ Sri Lanka is not a large island -- 64,621 sq. km (24, 950
sq. mi) but it has considerable topographic diversity.
‡ The upland core lies in the south where elevations reach
2,500 m (8,000 feet).
‡ This upland is surrounded by a lowland, most of which
lies below 300 m (1000 feet).
‡ Northern Sri Lanka is entirely low-lying.
‡ Rivers flow radially from the interior highland across
this lowland rim.
‡ The focus of Sinhalese Empire was Anuradhapura.
‡ The present focus is the moist upland southwest.
 |


‡ Plantation economy is the dominant feature of

Sri Lanka¶s economic geography.
‡ Three important plantation crops:
1. Coconuts in the hot lowlands;
2. Rubber up to about 600 m (2,000 feet); and
3. Tea in the highlands above. Tea constitutes 2/3
of Sri Lanka's annual exports by value.
± Rice production is not as efficient as plantation
agriculture.
 |


‡ Graphite is the most valuable mineral export.

‡ Sri Lanka's limited industry is located in Co ombo
(population 740,000), the country's capital, largest city,
and leading port.
‡ In 1983, extremist Tamils rioted to demand the creation
of a separate homeland in the island's northern lowland;
this triggered a violent response by Sinhalese bands.

‡ Religions: Buddhist-69%; Hindu-15%; Islam-8%;

Christian 8%.
  
 |

‡ The Maldives are an insular country with more than

1,000 islands and an area of 300 sq. km (115 sq. mi).
‡ Their highest point barely exceeds two m (6 ft) above
sea level.
‡ The population is 300,000, about a fourth of which
resides in the capital Xaa e.
‡ The country is a popular European tourist destination.
‡ There is a danger of submergence even with a minor
rise in the level of the ocean.
‡ The population adheres to Islam
 |
| 
|  |
‡ ºunjab A northwestern province of India.
‡
ributary A smaller stream that flows into a bigger one.
‡ Exotic (a ogenic) A stream that originates in a humid
environment and flows through a dry area.
‡ |a inization The process by which salts accumulate on the
surface in dry environments.
‡ Orogra
hic Mountain induced precipitation.
‡ Xonsoon The reversal of the wind systems in southern
Asia.
‡ Jet stream A band of fast-moving air usually found in
middle latitudes in the upper troposphere.
‡
erai A type of vegetation found in northern India.
‡ ÷reen Revo ution A western technology package that is used to
increase agricultural production in
developing countries.
 |
| 
|  |
‡ Cottage industries Small scale industries in India.
‡ induism The predominant religion of India.
‡ Caste system The hierarchical, hereditary social
organization of India.
± Brahmans The upper caste in India comprising
the scholars and teachers.
± shatriya In the caste system of India, the
political leaders and warriors.
± aisyas The people engaged in trades and
farming in the caste system of India.
± |udra The lowest caste that provides
services and support to the rest of the
society.
± arijans The lowest caste in India because it is
believed that they would contaminate
one's ritual purity, if there was any
personal contact with them.
 |
| 
|  |
‡ Nirvana In Hinduism, the spiritual unification
with cosmic forces.
‡ arma In Hinduism, the law of the deed.
‡ |uttee A Hindu practice whereby a widow
immolated herself on the funeral pyre of her
husband.
‡ Dravidian The languages spoken in southern India.
‡ Gingua franca The language of common use in areas
where more than one language is in use.
‡ Centri
eta forces A set of forces that tends to unite a certain
population.
‡ Centrifuga forces A set of forces that tends to disunite a certain
population.
‡ Bustee A shanty town in south Asia
 |
| 
|  |
‡
y
hoon A name used to describe a hurricane type
storm in Asia.
‡ Distributary One of the smaller channels into which a
river channel divides before it empties into
the sea.
‡ |ind A region in southern Pakistan.
‡ Forward ca
ita A capital city that is relocated into a new
area where a certain country wants to make a
statement of interest about that part of the
country, i.e. Islamabad in Pakistan.
‡ |inha ese The majority group in Sri Lanka. The
Sinhalese are descendants of people who
emigrated from northern India.
‡
ami s The minority people in Sri Lanka. They are
descendants of people that emigrated from
southern India and laborers that were
introduced by the British to work in the
plantations of the area.