First Example: Identifying Genes in Human DNA

 Identifying all the 100,000 genes in human DNA

 determining the sequences of the 3 billion(109) chemical

base pairs that make up human DNA.

 Insertion sort: running time n2

3 109  3 109 instruc 9 109
 9 10 seconds 
9
y  31.71years
109 instruc/s 60  60  24  365

 3  10 9
 lg(3  10
Merge 9sort: running
9
)instruc time nlgn
 3  lg(3 109 )seconds  94.45seconds
10 instruc/s

1
 What are algorithms?

 Why is the study of algorithms worthwhile?

 What is the role of algorithms relative to

other technologies used in computers?

2
 Origin of the word:-Algorithm
• The word algorithm comes from the name of the
9th century Persian mathematician
Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi
whose works introduced Indian numerals and
algebraic concepts.
• He worked in Baghdad at the time when it was the
centre of scientific studies and trade.
• The word algorism originally referred only to
the rules of performing arithmetic using
Arabic numerals but evolved via European
Latin translation of al-Khwarizmi's name into
algorithm by the 18th century.
• The word evolved to include all definite
procedures for solving problems or
performing tasks.
 1.1 What are algorithms?

Algorithm
a well-defined computational procedure
that takes some value, or a set of values, as
input and produces some value, or a set of
values, as output
Algorithm
sequence of computational steps that
transform the input into the output.
 1.1 What are algorithms

An algorithm is a sequence of unambiguous instructions

for solving a problem, i.e., for obtaining a required
output for any legitimate input in a finite amount of
time.
 Algorithms
 Informally,

Any well-defined computational procedure that takes
some value, or set of values, as input and produces
some value or set of values , as output.

Input Algorithm Output

An algorithm is a sequence of computational steps that

transform the input into the output.
Notion of algorithm

problem

algorithm

input “computer” output

Algorithmic solution
 1.1 What are algorithms

1. Algorithm is any well-defined computational procedure

Computational
Input Output
Procedure
algorithm

< 31,41,59,26,12,58 > < 31,41,59,26,12,58 >

<31,41,26,12,58,59>
<31,26,12,41,58,59>
<12,26,31,41,58,59>
……
8
 1.1 What are algorithms

2. Algorithm is a tool for solving a well-specified

computational problem

Problem ? instance
general questiones (input) ?
needed to be computed input1 ?
input2 ?
input3 ? output
……
Algorithm
(a tool)

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 1.1 What are algorithms

2. Algorithm is a tool for solving a well-specified

comutational problem (example)
Problem:to sort a sequence of numbers into nondecreasing order
Input: A sequence of n numbers <a1 ,a2 , , an >
' ' '
Output: A permutation (reordering) <a1 ,a2 , , an > of the
instance
input sequence such that a1  a2    an
' ' '

uestiones (input) ?
be computed An instance of the sorting problem
input1 ?
Input: <31,41,59,26,41,58>
input2 ?
input3 ? Output: <26,31,41,41,58,59>
output
……
lgorithm
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 1.1 What are algorithms

 Sorting is a fundamental operation in computer science

 An algorithm is said to be correct

if, for every input instance, it halts with the correct
output
 Incorrect algorithm
 might not halt at all on some input instances, or
 might halt with an answer other than the desired one
 can sometimes be useful (if error rate can be controlled)

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 Important Features
Finiteness:- If we trace out the instructions of an algorithm, then
for all cases, the algorithm terminates after a finite
number of steps.
Definiteness: Each instruction is clear and unambiguous, it must
be perfectly clear what should be done.
Input:- Zero or more quantities are externally supplied.
Output:- At least one quantity is produced
Effectiveness: Every instructions must be very basic so that it can
be carried out, in principle, by a person using only
pencil and paper in a finite amount of time.
Performing arithmetic on integers is an example of
an effective operation but arithmetic with real
numbers is not since some values may be
expressible only by infinitely long decimal
numbers.
 1.1.1 What kinds of problems are solved by algorithms

 Genome Project
 Internet
finding good routes; search engine
 Electronic commerce
keeping information; digital signatures
 Manufacturing and other commercial settings
placing wells; buying campaign advertising

 Finding the shortest path from one vertex to another

 Matrices product: A1 A2 A3 A4
A1 ( A2 ( A3 A4 )); A1 (( A2 A3 ) A4 ); (A1 A2 )( A3 A4 )
……
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 1.1.1 What kinds of problems are solved by algorithms

 Common characteristics of many algorithms

 Many candidate solutions

( one of which is best, but finding it can present quite a
challenge.)
for example, A1 A2 A3 A4
A1 ( A2 ( A3 A4 )); A1 (( A2 A3 ) A4 ); (A1 A2 )( A3 A4 )
 Practical application
shortest paths: a transportation (lower labor, fuel
costs)

 Theory value
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What kinds of problems are solved by
algorithms?
• Biological Problems
• To manage and manipulate large volume of data over
Internet
• Problems based on numerical algorithms and number
theory (e.g Public-key cryptography and digital signature)
• Problems of linear programming, Dynamic programming,
Shortest Path Problems , Strings Matching Problems,
Matrix Problems etc.
 1.1.2 Data structures

 A data structure is a way to store and organize data in

order to facilitate access and modifications
 No single data structure works well for all purposes
 It is important to know the strengths and limitations of
data structure

 Data structures: static

 Algorithms: dynamic

 The Art of Computer programming

Static + Dynamic

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 1.1.3 Technique

 Purpose of studying the course

 Grasping techniques of algorithm design and analysis

(chapters and sections)

 Developing algorithms on your own, showing that they

give the correct answer (exercises and problems)

 Understanding algorithm’s efficiency

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 1.1.4 Hard problems

 A story of the barber

 A story of the new manager
 NP-complete problem
 It is unknown whether or not efficient algorithms exist for NP-
complete problems
 In the set of NPC, if an efficient algorithms exists for any one, then
efficient algorithms exist for all
 Several are similar, but not identical, to problems for which we do
know of efficient algorithms.
 How to show that the problem is NP-complete
 Traveling-salesman problem
 ……

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 1.2 Algorithms as a technology

 If computer infinitely fast, memory free.

Study algorithms worth?
YES! Need demonstrate that the solution method 
terminates with the correct answer. ?

 If any method correct, then
 Implementation within the bounds of good software

engineering practice (i.e. well designed and documented);

 But most, what method is the easiest to implement!

 Computing time is a bounded resources, so is space

 Computers may be fast, but not infinitely fast

 Memory may be cheap, but not free

 Resources should be used wisely

 Algorithms can do so in terms of time or space

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 1.2.1 Efficiency

 To same problem, algorithms often differ dramatically in their

efficiency
 The differences can be much more significant than differences
due to hardware and software
 Example: sorting ten million (107) numbers

 Insertion sort: T (n)  c1n2  Merge sort: T ( n)  c2 n lg n

 Computer A: 109 instruc/s  Computer B: 107 instruc/s
 World’s craftiest programmer  Average programmer
 Machine language  High-level language
T ( n)  2n 2 T (n)  50n lg n
2  (107 ) 2instruc 50 107 lg107 instruc
t 9
 2  105 s  55.56h t  19.38m
10 instruc/s 107 instruc/s

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 1.2.1 Efficiency

 Efficient algorithm gains much more from the hardware improv

ement. For example,
 Suppose that the computer makes one basic step per second. Algori
thm A runs as (nA)2 , and B as 100nB .
 If an application requires you to complete as many items as
possible in one hour.
 Thus if A can make nA items , and B makes nB items, then
3600 = (nA)2 = 100nB
yields nA = 60 and nB = 36.
 But suppose that you replace the computer with one that is ten
times as fast. So you can make 36000 steps in the same time. Then
36000 = (nA)2 = 100nB
yields nA = 189 and nB = 360.

Algorithm B gains much more from the faster computer than A !!!
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 1.2.2 Algorithms and other technologies

 Like computer hardware, algorithms are technology

(1) Algorithms are important on contemporary computers

advanced technologies, such as
 Hardware with high clock rates, pipelining, and superscalar
architectures
 Easy-to-use, intuitive graphical user interfaces (GUIs)
 Object-oriented systems
 Local-area and wide-area networking

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 1.2.2 Algorithms and other technologies

For example
 a web-based service that determines how to travel
from one location to another
 The implementation would rely on fast hardware, a
GUI, wide-area networking, and also possibly on OO

 It would also require algorithms for certain operations,

such as finding routes, rendering maps, interpolating
address

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 1.2.2 Algorithms and other technologies

(2) Other technologies rely on algorithms

 The hardware design used algorithms
 The design of any GUI relies on algorithms
 Routing in networks relies heavily on algorithms

(3) The program languages were processed by a

compiler, interpreter, assembler, all of which make
extensive use of algorithms (accidence analysis,
syntax analysis)

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 1.2.2 Algorithms and other technologies

 Algorithms are at the core of most technologies

used in contemporary computers
Computing environment
(.net, grid, web service)

Program designing environment

Program designing language Hilbert

Turing
Program designing model
John Von Nouma
(machine, assembler, high-level language, OO
Knuth
Complexity of computing
( (Non)-Computable actually)
Computing model
(Computable, Non-computable)

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 1.2.2 Algorithms and other technologies

 Algorithms are at the core of most technologies used in

contemporary computers

 Having a solid base of algorithmic knowledge and

technique is one characteristic that separates the truly
skilled programmers from the novices
 With modern computing technology, you can
accomplish some tasks without knowing much about
algorithms
 With a good background in algorithms, you can do
much, much more !!!

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 What is Pseudocode?

• Pseudocode:- An outline of a program, written in a form

that can easily be converted into real programming
statements.
• The easiest way to express an algorithm is by
using pseudocode.
• Pseudocode is an English-like way of expressing
algorithms.
• It is more precise than "real" English, but not as
picky as a programming language.
 What is Pseudocode?

• For example, the pseudocode for a bubble-sort

routine might be written:
while not at end of list
compare adjacent elements
if second is greater than first
switch them
get next two elements
if elements were switched
repeat for entire list
Difference between Pseudocode and Algorithms

• Pseudocode cannot be compiled nor executed, and there

are no real formatting or syntax rules.
• It is simply one step - an important one - in producing the
final code. The benefit of pseudocode is that it enables
the programmer to concentrate on the algorithms without
worrying about all the syntactic details of a particular
programming language.
• In fact, you can write pseudocode without even knowing
what programming language you will use for the final
implementation
Difference between Pseudocode and Algorithms

• Pseudocode consists of short readable and formally-styled

natural language used to explain specific tasks within a
program's algorithm while an Algorithm is a set of instructions
used to solve a particular problem.
• Pseudocode is a statement which is not language specific,
Pesuedocode is not syntax related, consider it a plan for the
algorithm, algorithm requires perfect syntax.
Difference between Pseudocode and Algorithms

• Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of

notation, including natural languages,
pseudocode, flowcharts, and
programming languages.
• Natural language expressions of algorithms
tend to be verbose and ambiguous, and are
rarely used for complex or technical
algorithms.
Difference between Pseudocode and Algorithms

• Pseudocode and flowcharts are structured

ways to express algorithms that avoid many of the
ambiguities common in natural language
statements, while remaining independent of a
particular implementation language.