Product Technology (Welds)

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

The Nature & Origin of Common
Discontinuities
Origin of Discontinuities
• Discontinuities in metallic products can be

divided into three major groups:
1. INHERENT - discontinuities arising in the

early stages of manufacture
2. PROCESSING - discontinuities arising in the

later stages of manufacture
3. IN-SERVICE - discontinuities arising during
the service life of a component
• INHERENT DEFECTS:
1. Smelting and casting defects

2. Wrought production defects
3. Welding defects

• PROCESSING DEFECTS:
1. Heat treatment cracks

2. Grinding cracks
3. Defects due to surface treatments such as

plating or case hardening
• IN-SERVICE DEFECTS:
1. Fatigue cracks
2. Creep
3. Stress corrosion cracking

4. Sulphide stress cracking
5. Hydrogen induced cracking
Welding & Joining
• When 2 or more metallic objects have to be

bonded together various options are available:
1. Mechanical - bolting or riveting

2. Adhesives
3. Soldering or brazing

4. Welding - fusion welding or solid state welding
• In general welded joints are the strongest

Welding
• Many different welding processes are available

• These can be divided into 2 basic groups:
1. Fusion welding processes - in such processes

joining involves melting
2. Solid state welding processes - no melting takes

place
• In heavy industry most welds are made by fusion

processes
Fusion Welding Processes
• Electric-arc welding
• Electric resistance welding
• Plasma welding
• Electron beam welding
• Thermit welding

• Electro-slag welding
• Laser welding
• Oxy-fuel gas welding
Electric Arc Welding
• Electric arc welding is probably the most used of all

welding methods
• The main electric arc welding processes are:
1. Manual Metallic Arc (MMA)

2. Metal Active Gas (MAG)

3. Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
4. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
5. Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
6. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Electric Arc Welding

Heat Input
• In any welding process heat input is a critical

factor
• In electric arc welding heat input is controlled by
2 major welding variables:
1. Welding current

2. Travel speed
• Several other factors including arc length and

polarity also affect heat input
Manual Metallic Arc Welding

Manual Metallic Arc Welding
• A fully manual process - the welder controls

welding current, travel speed, arc length & the angle
that the electrode makes with the workpiece
• Simple, reliable equipment
• Versatile - all welding positions, most
materials

• Less affected by adverse atmospheric
conditions than other processes
Metal Inert (or active) Gas Welding



• In MIG welding the shielding gas is the inert gas

ARGON
• In MAG welding the shielding gas is pure carbon
dioxide or a mixture of carbon dioxide and argon
• MAG welding is cheaper, but the weld quality is not
as good as MIG

• MIG is more versatile & can be used to weld most
materials
• MIG/MAG are semiautomatic or fully automatic

processes
• Semiautomatic welding in welding positions
other than flat is not easy
• In fully automatic welding good quality can be
achieved in all welding positions

• The welder has little influence over arc length,
but he can control ‘stick-out’
• If the stick-out is too long there is a danger that
the gas-shield will fail
• Compared with MMA, the MIG/MAG

processes demand less operator skill
• There is no slag in MIG/MAG welding, this
helps to improve speed (no cleaning needed
between runs)
• MIG/MAG equipment can be temperamental

in site conditions
• MIG/MAG welding is more adversely affected
by windy conditions than MMA
Flux-cored Arc Welding
• In FCAW the equipment is similar to that used for MIG or

MAG welding, but the filler wire is hollow & contains flux
• FCAW may be self-shielded, but it is more common that
the arc is shielded by a mixture of Argon and Carbon
Dioxide gas
• FCAW can be used in all welding positions. It benefits
from high deposition rates and excellent weld quality

• FCAW is now the most commonly used process in the
UK for shop welding of heavy steel structures
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding



• TIG is probably the most versatile of all the

arc welding processes, difficult materials such
as titanium are routinely welded by this
process
• TIG requires a high degree of operator skill
but welding quality is generally very high

• When used in field conditions this process
must be carefully shielded from wind
Submerged Arc Welding


• Benefits of submerged arc welding:
1. Excellent weld quality

2. Excellent depth of penetration, rarely affected
by lack of fusion
3. Excellent surface finish

4. Very fast
5. ‘Narrow gap’ welding possible (saves filler
wire & increases rate of production)
• Disadvantages of submerged arc welding:
1. Generally limited to welding in the flat

position
2. Not suitable for welding low melting point
alloys

3. Not normally applicable to single sided
welding (a backing strip or consumable insert
may be used)
Electroslag Welding (ESW)

• Electroslag is not an electric arc welding method!!

• It is limited to the vertical-up welding position

• Methods such as electron beam & thermit welding have
largely replaced ESW
Fusion Welding Terminology




Welding Defects
• Welding defects may be divided into 5 main

groups:
1. Cracks
2. Fusion defects
3. Solid inclusions

4. Gas cavities
5. Surface imperfections
Weld Crack Types
• Cracks caused by fusion welding may occur in:
• The fusion zone

• The heat affected zone
• The parent material

• Every type of crack needs stress to propagate
• In fusion welding, internal stress caused by
contraction of the weld deposit will usually approach
the yield strength of the material
Weld Crack Types
• Cracks caused by fusion welding can be:
• LONGITUDINAL - major dimension parallel to

the weld axis
• TRANSVERSE - major dimension at 90º to
the weld axis

• CHEVRON - major dimension at 45º to the
weld axis
Weld Crack Types
Branched Crater or star

cracks crack
Chevron
cracks
Parent
Transverse material
crack crack

Centreline
crack Longitudinal
crack
Weld Crack Types
• Common types of cracks that may be found in

fusion welds are:
• HYDROGEN INDUCED - sometimes called ‘cold
cracking’, these cracks occur after a weld has cooled to
ambient temperature, hence the term ‘delayed hydrogen
cracking’.

• SOLIDIFICATION - this type of crack occurs in the weld
deposit, often longitudinally along the weld axis, hence the
term ‘centreline crack’. This crack is caused by shrinkage of
the weld deposit & excessive restraint. Sometimes called
‘shrinkage cracking’ or ‘hot cracking.’
Weld Crack Types

fusion welds are:
• LAMELLAR TEARING - this type of crack occurs in the

heat affected zone or in the parent material adjacent to it. It
is caused by low ductility in the through thickness direction
of rolled steel products.

• CRATER CRACK - the shallow depression in the weld
cap where the arc is broken is called a ‘crater’. A crater
crack is a small, often star shaped solidification crack
occurring at the centre of such a depression.
Weld Crack Types

fusion welds are:
• COPPER PICK-UP CRACK - when copper mixes with

molten steel it forms a brittle intermetallic compound which
tends to precipitate at the grain boundaries as the steel
solidifies leading to a catastrophic loss of ductility.

• RE-HEAT CRACKING - when metal is heated it
expands. This expansion causes stress which may cause
cracking. Re-heat cracks often propagate from the toe of a
weld which acts as a stress raiser
Sulphur in Steel
• Typical engineering steels contain small

quantities of sulphur as an impurity
• Sulphur in carbon steels causes brittleness -
lack of ductility
• If sulphur content is high all types of crack are
much more likely to occur

Delayed Hydrogen Crack

• Usually occurs in the heat affected zone
• In order for delayed hydrogen cracking to

occur there must be:
• 1. A source of hydrogen - hydrogen enters the

weld metal from damp electrodes, damp atmospheric
conditions and other sources
• 2. Susceptible grain structure - this means

material that has low ductility. When medium or high
carbon steel is subjected to rapid cooling from high
temperature a very hard, very brittle ‘martensitic’
microstructure results. It is this hard, brittle phase that
is ‘susceptible’.
• Hydrogen cracking can be avoided if:
• 1. The source of hydrogen is removed - use ‘low

hydrogen’ flux or electrodes, or use a process such as TIG
or MIG which is naturally low hydrogen. Another approach
is to perform a ‘hydrogen release’ heat treatment, this
usually involves holding the weld at around 250ºC for a few

hours following completion of the weld.
• 2. Susceptible grain structure is avoided- rapid
cooling rates lead to susceptible grain structure. Cooling
rate can be slowed by the use of preheat.
Solidification Crack

• Usually occurs at the weld centreline
• Solidification cracking is caused by:
• EXCESSIVE RESTRAINT - the parts being joined are

unable to move in response to the stresses caused by
shrinkage of the weld deposit
• EXCESSIVE HEAT INPUT - too much metal molten at

the same time
• HIGH SULPHUR CONTENT - sulphur in steel forms
brittle compounds that tend to precipitate on the grain
boundaries leading to a lack of ductility
• Solidification cracking can be avoided by:
1. Use a filler wire that produces a weld deposit

that has low yield strength and high ductility
2. Minimise heat input - use a large number of
thin layers rather than just a few thick ones.

Lamellar Tearing

• This defect affects ‘T’ joints, cruciform joints, corner
joints & other weld configurations where the material is
stressed in the through thickness direction
Crater Crack

• A small solidification crack at the end of a
weld run
Fusion Defects
• Lack of penetration (LOP) - also referred to as

incomplete penetration (ICP) or lack of root
penetration (LORP)
• Lack of root fusion (LORF) - also referred to as
incomplete root fusion (ICRF) or missed edge
• Lack of sidewall fusion (LOSWF) - also referred

to as lack of fusion (LOF) or incomplete fusion (IF)
• Lack of interrun fusion (LOIRF)
• Lack of fill - also referred to as incomplete fill
Lack of Penetration

Lack of Penetration

Lack of Root Fusion

Lack of Sidewall Fusion

Lack of Interrun Fusion

Lack of Fill

Lack of Fill

Solid Inclusions
• Slag inclusions - these can only occur if the

welding process involves the use of flux. FCAW,
MMA and SAW can have slag inclusions, MIG, MAG
and TIG cannot
• Oxide inclusions - these can affect any arc welding
process, but defects appearing in TIG, MIG or MAG
with the radiographic appearance of slag are oxide

and not slag inclusions
• Dense metal inclusions - tungsten from the
tungsten electrode in TIG welding, or iron
contamination when welding light metals such as
aluminium
Slag Inclusions

• Slag inclusions are often associated with lack of
fusion
Dense Metal Inclusions

• Tungsten inclusion in steel (radiograph)
Gas Cavities
• Isolated gas pores - possible causes: damp electrodes /

contaminated weld bevel / loss of gas shielding
• Group porosity - possible causes: damp electrodes /
contaminated weld bevel / loss of gas shielding
• Wormholes - possible causes: as for porosity + gas trapped
in other defects such as lack of fusion or laminations in the
parent plate

• Crater pipe - poor welding technique, arc broken too quickly
(not a gas cavity, this defect is caused by shrinkage)
• Hollow bead - a rare defect mostly affecting pipeline welds
made using cellulosic coated electrodes
Porosity

Surface Porosity

Crater Pipe

Surface Imperfections
• Spatter - caused by incorrect polarity or welding

current too high.
• Arc strikes - or stray arcs, poor welding technique.
May lead to cracking problems.
• Root concavity - also called shallow bead or suck-
back. Caused by root gap too narrow or too wide,
incorrect electrode size, incorrect welding current & (in

TIG welding) by excessive back purge pressure.
• Burn through - excessive heat input on the second
weld pass
Surface Imperfections
• Lack of reinforcement - failure to deposit sufficient

weld metal
• Excessive penetration - root gap too wide,
incorrect welding parameters, too much remelting on
the second pass
• Undercut - the usual causes are welding current too
high and/or poor technique

• Cold lap - hot metal spilling over from the welding
groove & failing to fuse with the parent material. Also
called rollover bead.
Lack of Reinforcement

Root Concavity

Weld Spatter

Arc Strikes

Excessive Penetration

Excessive Penetration

Cold Lap

Undercut

Root Undercut

Burn Through

Heat Treatment
• Heat treatment can dramatically change the

physical properties of a metal product
• Common heat treatments for carbon steel
are:
1. Normalising

2. Annealing
3. Stress Relief
Normalising
• This heat treatment is used to improve

mechanical properties
• It may be applied following welding or to a
casting or to a wrought product
• It involves heating above the critical temperature
(about 723°C), usually to 910°C, a holding

period at that temperature, followed by fairly
rapid cooling in air
Annealing
• This heat treatment is designed to maximise

ductility prior to cold working
• Car body sheet is typically supplied in the
annealed condition
• For carbon steel the temperature used is the
same as for normalising (910°C), but the

holding period is longer and the cooling rate
is very slow
Stress Relief
• Following plastic deformation all metals

‘recrystalise’
• In recrystalisation atoms within the structure
move to release internal stresses
• Steel will recrystalise very slowly even at
normal room temperature, but above the

‘recrystalisation temperature’ of about 450°C
the process of recrystalisation is very rapid
Stress Relief
• Stress relieving of carbon steel typically

involves controlled heating to around 600°C,
followed by holding at that temperature,
followed by controlled cooling to 300°C,
followed by cooling in air.
• Stress relieving is often used to improve the

corrosion resistance of welded pressure piping
& pressure vessels
In-service Failure Mechanisms
• Metallic components are subject to several

important in-service failure mechanisms:
1. Fatigue
2. Creep
3. Brittle fracture

4. Stress corrosion cracking
5. Sulphide stress cracking

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PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• Discontinuities in metallic products can be

1. INHERENT - discontinuities arising in the

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

1. Smelting and casting defects

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

1. Heat treatment cracks

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• When 2 or more metallic objects have to be

1. Mechanical - bolting or riveting

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• In general welded joints are the strongest

• Many different welding processes are available

1. Fusion welding processes - in such processes

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• In heavy industry most welds are made by fusion

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• Electric arc welding is probably the most used of all

1. Manual Metallic Arc (MMA)

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• In any welding process heat input is a critical

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• Several other factors including arc length and

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• A fully manual process - the welder controls

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• In MIG welding the shielding gas is the inert gas

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• MIG/MAG are semiautomatic or fully automatic

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• Compared with MMA, the MIG/MAG

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• In FCAW the equipment is similar to that used for MIG or

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• TIG is probably the most versatile of all the

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• Benefits of submerged arc welding:

1. Excellent weld quality

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• Disadvantages of submerged arc welding:

1. Generally limited to welding in the flat

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• Welding defects may be divided into 5 main

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008

• Cracks caused by fusion welding may occur in:

• The fusion zone