Weathering of

Presented by

rocks
Anmol Naheed

1
2 contents

 History
 Definition
 Classification of lichen
 Weathering of rocks
 Physical weathering
 Chemical weathering
 Other mechanism
 Factors affecting weathering
 Secondary weathering products
 Protection effect of lichen
 Lichen as pioneer of community
3 History

 The involvement of lichen in weathering of rocks has

been discussed since the end of 19 century.
 Aldready julien (1883) mentioned the influence of
lichen as an organic agent in the deterioration of
stone material.
 At the turn of century particularly Bachmann (1904,
1907, 1911, 1917) Smith (1921) and Fry (1927) provided
studies which were concentrating on mechanical
action of rocks.
4 History

 Subsequently more emphasis was placed on chemical

alteration of rocks by lichen compound (e.g., Schartz
1962, 1963; Syers, 1969; Iskandar & Syers, 1971; Galwan
et al., 1981; Adamo et al., 2000; Bjelland,2002; Rosa,
2013; Salvadori, 2016).
5 Definition

 According to Ahmadjian, 1993 lichen may be

described as
 “an association between a fungus, usually an
ascomycete but in a few cases a basidiomycete or
deuteromycete, and one or more photosynthetic
partners, generally green algae or cyanobacteria.
 In all lichens the fungus forms a thallus or lichenized
stroma that may contain unique secondary
compounds”.
6 classification based on
habitat variation
 lichens occupying rocks as their substrates, generally
known as saxicolous species
 It can be divided into three distinct groups
 Crustose
 Foliose
 Fruticose
7 Classifiction of crustose
lichen
 Crustose lichens may also be subdivided into two
types
 Epilithic:
 living on the surface of the rock
 Endolithic:
 living in the interior of the rock
 8

Fig.1.2:Endolithic Disk
Fig.1.1:Epilithic lichen
Acarospora fuscata Lichen Lecidea laboriosa
9 Classification of endolithic
lichen
 Cryptoendolithic:
 colonize structural cavities
 Chasmoendolithic:
 colonize fissures and cracks within rocks
 Euendolithic:
 actively bore into rocks and colonize it
10

Fig. 2.2:
Fig.2.1: Cryptoendolithic
Chasmoendolithic

Fig.2.3: Euendolithic
 11 Weathering of rocks

 Lichenic weathering on mineral surfaces involve both

 Physical weathering
 Chemical weathering
 •Modification of mineral
The penetration of hyphae through surface features
Nature of •Fragmentation of mineral
intergranular voids planes weathered
Expansion and contraction of thallus by grain
12 Physical microclimatic wetting and drying
residues
•Seperation of mineral
Freezing and thawing of lichen thallus cleavage plane
process and associated microenvironment •Depletion of structural
Swelling action of organic and inorganic mineral cation and
salts originating from lichen activity alteration
Incorporation of mineral fragments into •Stain, exfoliation of surface
the thallus and rock breakdown
Lichen colonization on rock

•Increasing bioavailability of rocks for successive

Weathering Weathering
Bi direction life form
of rocks
promotion nature and •Traping airborne dust
product •Causing bio-erosion by animal
•Developing biokarst landform and forming
primitive soil

•Generation of respiratory CO2 •Metal oxalates

• The excretion of oxalic acid •Iron oxides
Chemical • The production of biochemical •Amorphous
process compounds with complexing alumino-silicate gels
ability Weathering •Clay minerals
•Other mechanism products
13 Physical
weathering
 Generally, the physical weathering of rocks by lichens
proceeds by the following mechanisms:
I. The penetration of hyphae through intergranular
voids and mineral cleavage planes
II. Expansion and contraction of thallus by
microclimatic wetting and drying
14 Continue…

I. Freezing and thawing of lichen thallus and

associated microenvironment
II. Swelling action of organic and inorganic salts
originating from lichen activity
III. Incorporation of mineral fragments into the thallus
 15 penetration of hyphae

 Hyphae can detach rock minerals by the penetration.

 It results into detachment, separation and exfoliation of
rocks
16 Expansion and contraction
of thallus
 mechanical force exerted by the expansion and
constriction of gelatinous and mucilaginous
substances of medulla through wetting and
drying of lichen thalli is significant in the physical
weathering process (Fry 1927)
 medulla of lichens is an excellent hygroscopic
substance and has a great water holding
capacity, up to 300% of the dry weight when
enough moisture is available (Creveld, 1981)
 17 Freezing and thawing

 Freeze and thaw resulting from temperature variation may

occur in both the microenvironment created by the lichen
community and in lichen thallus itself.
 As a result of hyphal penetration, surface water can reach a
considerable depth and cause weathering
18 Swelling action of salts

crystallization of salts within pores and cracks of rocks may

exert sufficient pressure to separate mineral grains or rock
fragments (Wellman & wilson, 1965)
 Incorporation of mineral fragments
19
into the thallus

 lichen thalli can incorporate the separated or

disaggregated rock and mineral fragments by mechanical
processes (Ascarso & Weirzchos1994)
 On recent lava flows of Mount Etna and Vesuvius, the
chemical, mineralogical and micromorphological properties
of the incoherent materials found at the rock–lichen
interface suggest that they consist mostly of rock fragments
eroded from the surroundings and accumulated in cavities
and fissures of the rough substrate (Vingiani et al.,
2013).
20 Chemical weathering

 The main chemical processes by which lichens

solubilize minerals are
I. Generation of respiratory CO2
II. The excretion of oxalic acid
III. The production of biochemical compounds with
complexing ability
21 Generation of respiratory CO2

 The dissolution of respiratory CO2 in water held by

lichen thalli results in the generation of carbonic acid,
 which advances solubilization processes by lowering
the local pH values of the thallus and the related
microenvironment.
22 CONTINUE..

 CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

(carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid)

 CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca2+ + 2HCO3-

(calcite + carbonic acid → calcium + bicarbonate)

23 Excretion of oxalic acid

 Lichens also have significant impact in the chemical

weathering of rocks by the excretion of various
organic acids, particularly oxalic acid, which can
effectively dissolve minerals and chelate metallic
cations.
24 Other acids

 Divaricatic acid
 Thamnolic acid
 Usnic acid
 Gyrophoric acid
 Lecanoric acid
25
compounds having chelating capacity

 Following compounds have chelating capacities and

play role in weathering
 lichen depsides and depsodones
 polar compounds having OH, CHO, COOH in ortho
positions
 squamatic acid, a depside present in Cladonia
squamosa could solubilize iron (Ascaso and Galvan,
1976).
26 Lichens and associated
fungi
william et al., (1974) Some of the fungi such as
Penicillium and Cephalosporium were able to chelate iron in
solution from twice to as much as six times than that of the
squamatic acid
27 Other mechanism

 Alkalinolysis
 enzymatic reaction
 Microbial absorption and uptake
 Nitrogen fixation in lichen
28 alkalinolysis

 Alkalinolysis of mineral materials caused

by alkaline metabolic products is one of
the other mechanisms by which
microorganisms solubilize their mineral
substrates.
 some alkaline nitrogen compounds, such
as NH4OH, are believed to stimulate the
dissolving of lichen compounds and
therefore accelerate the weathering of
minerals (Creveld, 1981)
29 Enzymatic reaction

 There has been no report on the role of enzymes in the

weathering induced by lichens so far, despite the fact
that some microorganisms associated with lichens
such as cyanobacteria probably produce enzymes,
contributing to dissolution of lichen compounds and to
other processes.
30 Microbial absorption and
uptake
 Microbial absorption and uptake
(adsorption to cell surfaces or absorption
by microorganisms) are also believed to
be of importance in the terms of the
weathering process by microorganisms
(Berthelin, 1983)
 the specific absorption and uptake of
some elements by lichens would result in
the acceleration of solubilization of the
related element-bearing minerals.
31 Nitrogen fixation in lichens

 Seneviratne et al., 2006 reported that a mutualistic

interaction between a heterotrophic N2 fixer and
lichen fungi in the presence of a carbon source can
contribute to enhanced release of organic acids,
leading to improved solubilization of the mineral
substrate.
32

Fig.3 : Suggested sequence of weathering effects of lichen on substrate

33 Factors effecting rate of
weathering
 Age of lichen
 Concentration of chelating compound
 Nature of compounds causing weathering
 Nature of rocks and minerals
 Environmental effect
34 Age of lichen

 Differences between the taxa in age could also

influence on the degree of weathering, as old lichens
would be in contact with the substrate longer than
lichens with a short lifespan.
35 Concentration of
compound
 Higher the concentration of chelating compound
higher the rate of weathering
 Lower the concentration of chelating compound
lower the rate of weathering
36 Nature of compound

 Ascaso et al., (1976)found experimentally that a

mixture of four lichen compounds, atranorin, usnic
acid, stictic acid and norstictic acid had the same
weathering effect as stictic acid alone.
 Nature of weathered rocks and
37 minerals

 Different types of rocks are affected in quite different ways

during the weathering process due to variation in
 Mineral constituents
 Texture
 Porosity
38 basalt
It has been
experimentally
revealed that
pyroxene, olivine and
feldspar, the main
rock-forming minerals
of basalt, are all
subject to the attack
of organic acids (Eick
et al., 1996) Fig.5: Showing cracks
in basalt rock by
lichen
39 granitic rocks
 In granitic rocks
weathered by
lichens, micaceous
minerals seem to be
the most significantly
affected.
 Among them, biotite
is shown to be most
subject to attack by
organic acids under
Fig.6: Weathered granite
laboratory
covered with lichen
conditions.
40 Calcareous rocks
Oxalic acid, if
secreted by the
mycobionts,
would be
expected to play
a particularly
active role in
dissolution of the
primary minerals Fig.7: Fungus community
of calcareous on limestone
rocks
 41 Sandstone
 Exudates from
cryptoendolithic lichens
dissolve the cementing
substance between
sandstone grains,
 Thus reducing the cohesion
of sandstone grains in the
upper level of the lichen-
colonized zone, resulting in
surface exfoliation.
Fig.4: Exfoliation in
sandstone
 Comparative studies of the lichen–rock interface of
four lichens in Vingen, western Norway
42

 Bjelland et al., 2002 analysed samples of

sandstone colonized by four different lichen
by
 high performance thin-layer
chromatography (HPTLC)/thin-layer
chromatography (TLC)
 scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
 X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray
fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF)
43 Results

 Their results indicated that weathering rinds

beneath Ophioparma ventosa, and to a lesser
extend Pertusaria corallina, are in general deeper and
show a higher degree of mineral dissolution and
crumbling of the rock surface, compared to Fuscidea
cyathoides and Ochrolechia tartarea.
44 results

 O. ventosa and P. corallina both contain thamnolic

acid . In addition, O. ventosa contains divaricatic and
usnic acid. However, very little is actually known about
the effect of different lichen compounds on rates of
rock and mineral weathering.
45 Nature of mineral

 Calcite is very susceptible to chemical weathering

 After calcite, apatite and chlorite are the least stable
minerals
 Plagioclase, Potassium feldspar and muscovite shows
partial dissolution
 Quartz is the most resistant mineral.
46 composition of atmosphere

 Increasing industrial activities and pollution had also

modified the composition of atmosphere and
consequently favored the invasion of some aggressive
species of lichens such as Dirina
massiliensis forma sorediata, Lecanora
muralis and Xanthoria parietina which are
deteriorating various monuments of Italy, Spain and
Portugal (Dakal, 2012; Salvadori,2016)
47

Secondary
weathering
products
48 metal oxalates

 Various metal oxalates, resulting from the

reaction of oxalic acid with the minerals of
the rock substrates, are known as the most
frequent forms of secondary crystalline
products of the weathering by lichens
 The oxalate contributes significantly to the
bulk and composition of the thallus itself and
persists as an obvious encrustation after the
lichen’s death (Seaward, 2015).
49 Iron oxides

 Poorly ordered iron oxides are among the

characteristic secondary products of the weathering
processes in the presence of organic acids.
50 Amorphous alumino-silicate gels

 Chemical weathering by the presence of organic

matter and living organisms has been known to be
characterized by the removal of metallic cations and
the accumulation of silica, as well as the occurrence
of amorphous alumino-silicate gels
51 Clay minerals

 A variety of clay minerals associated with lichen

weathering have been identified in many types of
rock substrates including
 kaolinite
 halloysite
 vermiculite
 goethite
 Illite
 allophane and imogolite
52 Protection effects of lichen

 lichens may play a role in protection of rocks against

weathering
 a dense lichen cover could form a barrier, shielding
the substrate rock from external environments and
buffering the effects of physical and chemical
weathering agents such as wind abrasion, raindrop
impact, water flow, temperature variation, salt
deposition, and airborne pollution
53

Lichen as pioneer of community

54 Soil formation

 The abundant and diverse lichen acids that

lichens secrete in their metabolic activities have
an important impact on the weathering and
decomposing process of rock substrates.
 They make the transformation of rock into sand
grains at a faster rate.
 As time goes by, sand grains start to accumulate
and be mixed with decayed lichens and other
humus, thus creating a soil for habitation by other
plants
55 Continue…

 Mosses can then colonize the thin soil; as mosses die,

the soil thickens more allowing other hardy species to
colonize.
 The process continues until a mature forest forms,
sometimes centuries later.
56

Fig.8 showing primary succession

57 Conclusion

 Weathering activities by epithilic and

endothilic lichen are positively
connected by alternate expansion and
contraction of lichen thallus, hyphae
penetration as well as to the chelating
capacities of lichen substances and
oxalic acid. Furthermore, intensity of rock
weathering is influenced by lichen tissue
as well as and physical and chemical
composition of rock.
58 REFERENCES

 Fry, E. J. (1924). A suggested explanation of the

mechanical action of lithophytic lichens on rocks
(shale). Annals of Botany, 38(149), 175-196.
 Iskandar, I. K., & Syers, J. K. (1971). Solubility of
lichen compounds in water: pedogenetic
implications. The Lichenologist, 5(1-2), 45-50.
 Ascaso, C., Sancho, L. G., & Rodriguez-Pascual,
C. (1990). The weathering action of saxicolous
lichens in maritime Antarctica. Polar
Biology, 11(1), 33-39.
59 REFERENCES

 Eick, M. J., Grossl, P. R., Golden, D. C., Sparks, D.

L., & Ming, D. W. (1996). Dissolution of a lunar
basalt simulant as affected by pH and organic
anions. Geoderma, 74(1-2), 139-160.
 Chen, J., Blume, H. P., & Beyer, L. (2000).
Weathering of rocks induced by lichen
colonization—a review. Catena, 39(2), 121-146.
 Adamo, P., & Violante, P. (2000). Weathering of
rocks and neogenesis of minerals associated with
lichen activity. Applied Clay Science, 16(5-6),
229-256.
60 references

 Bjelland, T., & Thorseth, I. H. (2002). Comparative studies of

the lichen–rock interface of four lichens in Vingen,
western Norway. Chemical Geology, 192(1-2), 81-98.
 Seneviratne, G., & Indrasena, I. K. (2006). Nitrogen fixation
in lichens is important for improved rock
weathering. Journal of biosciences, 31(5), 639-643.
 Dakal, T. C., & Cameotra, S. S. (2012). Microbially induced
deterioration of architectural heritages: routes and
mechanisms involved. Environmental Sciences
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 de la Rosa, J. P. M., Warke, P. A., & Smith, B. J. (2013).
Lichen-induced biomodification of calcareous surfaces:
bioprotection versus biodeterioration. Progress in Physical
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61 references

 Vingiani, S., Terribile, F., & Adamo, P. (2013).

Weathering and particle entrapment at the
rock–lichen interface in Italian volcanic
environments. Geoderma, 207, 244-255.
 Seaward, M. R. (2015). Lichens as agents of
biodeterioration. In Recent advances in
lichenology (pp. 189-211). Springer, New Delhi.
 Salvadori, O., & Municchia, A. C. (2016, April).
The role of fungi and lichens in the
biodeterioration of stone monuments. In The
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No. 1).