Introduction to Drilling Fluids

(Types, Functions, Properties, and

WBM Systems)

Houston Learning Center

Water-base Drilling Fluids
 Drilling Fluid Composition

• Continuous phase
– Flows
– Transports
– Free Water
• Discontinuous phase
– Non Flowing
– Transported
– Liquids, Gases, and Solids
 Composition
Drill Solids Hydrated Clay
Gas Drill Solids

Barite
Free Water
Bound Water Emulsified Liquid
Polymer
 Properties
• Mud weight (density)
• Rheological
- Viscosity – measure of the internal resistance by
a fluid to flow.
– Funnel Viscosity – the amount of time (secs) it takes for
1 quart of fluid to pass through the Marsh funnel into a
mud cup.
– Plastic Viscosity – viscosity related to the internal
resistance to flow attributable to the amount, type, and
size of solids present in a given fluid.
– Yield Point – the resistance to initial flow or stress
required to start fluid movement.
– Gel Strength – measure of the ability of a colloid to
form gels
 Properties

• Mud pH and Alkalinity (Pm)

• Filtration
– Fluid loss to formation
– Wall cake
• Filtrate Chemistry
– Alkalinity (Pf/Pm)
– Salinity
– Hardness
 Properties

• Mud Solids
– Commercial
– Formation
• Cation Exchange Capacity
 Mud Weight (density)

Provides hydrostatic pressure to maintain

borehole stability and control of formation
pore pressure
Weight per unit volume of drilling fluid
Pounds per gallon, ppg
Pounds per cubic foot, pcf
Specific gravity, sg
Hydrostatic pressure gradient, psi/ft
Function of base fluid density and solids
 Hydrostatic Pressure

• Pressure exerted by a column of fluid due to

its vertical length and density
– HP = 0.052 (MW) (TVD)

HP hydrostatic pressure, psi

MW mud weight, ppg
TVD vertical
 Hydrostatic Pressure

• Given
– MW = 15.0 ppg
– TVD = 8000 ft

HP = 0.052 (MW) (TVD)

HP = 0.052 (15.0) (8000)
HP = 6240 psi
HP HP

FP FP

8000 ft
 Viscosity

• Ratio of shear stress to shear rate

– Shear stress is the internal resistance of a fluid to
flow at a shear rate
– Shear rate is related to flow rate
50
Shear Stress,  (lb/100 ft2
40
30
20
10
0

0 300 600
Shear Rate,  (rpm)
 Yield Point

• Shear stress required to initiate fluid flow

• Directly related to fluid carrying capacity

YP =  300 - PV
50
Shear Stress,  (lb/100 ft2
40

PV
30

YP
20
10
0

0 300 600
Shear Rate,  (rpm)
 Shear Rate
• Approximate values in circulating
system
– Pits
• 0 to 6 rpm
– Annulus
• 6 to 300 rpm 50
Shear Stress,  (lb/100 ft2
40

– Drill String
30

• 300 to more than600 rpm

20
10
0

0 300 600
Shear Rate,  (rpm)
 Viscosity

• Newtonian fluids
– Shear stress is directly proportional to shear rate
– Viscosity is a constant
• Non-Newtonian fluids
– Shear stress is a non-linear function of shear rate
– Viscosity is a function of shear rate
 Viscosity

Equivalent viscosity
Viscosity of an equivalent newtonian fluid
Shear stress divided by shear rate 50
Shear Stress,  (lb/100 ft2
40
30
20
10
0

0 300 600
Shear Rate,  (rpm)
 Viscosity
• Plastic viscosity
– Viscosity related to size shape and number of
solids
50
Shear Stress,  (lb/100 ft2
40


30


20
10
0

0 300 600
Shear Rate,  (rpm)
 Viscosity

• Apparent viscosity
– One half of the shear stress measured at 600
rpm
• Funnel Viscosity
– Qualitative measurement made by rig
personnel to monitor mud condition
– Optimum value is determined by experience for
drilling fluid in good condition
 Gel Strength

• A measure of the fluids ability to suspend

solids
• Measure of the rigid or semi-rigid gel
structure developed during periods of no
flow
• Maximum measured shear stress at three
rpm
• After remaining static ten seconds
• After remaining static ten minutes
 Viscosity and Gel Strength

• Hole cleaning
• Suspension of solids
• Circulating pressure
• Separation of drilled solids
• Transmission of hydraulic energy
• Surge and swab pressures
• Drill rate
 Equivalent Circulating Density

• Total pressure exerted by the drilling fluid

below the bit when circulating expressed as
an equivalent mud weight in ppg

ECD = MW + [APL/(0.052+ [CP /(0.052 TVD)]

TVD)]

APL is the pressure required to circulate the drilling fluid from

the bit to the surface
 ECD

• Calculate the ECD for a well being drilled at

10,000 feet vertical depth with a 15.0 ppg mud
density and a total annulus pressure loss of
156 psi
• ECD = 15 + [156/((0.052)(10,000))]
• ECD = 15.3 ppg
 pH

• pH
– The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion
activity in aqueous solutions.
• Low pH environments tend to be corrosive
and may suggest mud contamination by
acid gases
• High pH may inhibit the yield of clays
• High pH may cause the dysfunction of
polymers
 pH

• The degree of alkalinity or acidity of a

solution.
• Typical range
– 8.5 to 12.5
Acidic Neutral Base

0 7 14
 Mud Alkalinity, Pm

• A measure of the alkalinity contributing

compounds, soluble and insoluble, in a
drilling fluid
• The total volume of standard acid
required to lower the pH of one cubic
centimeter of whole mud to a Ph of 8.3
 Mud Alkalinity, Pm

• Indicator of insoluble lime or cement

• Control the excess lime and gyp in
calcium inhibited drilling fluids
• Control acid gas contamination
 Filtration

• Process of a fluid filtering through a low

per-meability barrier leaving solids
deposited in a filter cake
– Quantitative guidelines provided by lab tests
– Qualitative guidelines applied by experience
• High measured filtration rates suggests
high rates of fluid loss down hole
accompanied by thick permeable wall
cakes
 Filtrate Volume and Cake

• High filtrate volumes

– Dehydration of drilling fluid on trips
– Differential sticking of drill string
– Formation damage
– Bore hole instability
– Bit balling
• Low filtrate volumes
– Decreased drill rate
– Increased cost
 Wall Cake

• Thick permeable, sticky, and soft

– Torque and drag
– Differential sticking
• Thick, permeable, and firm
– Reduced hole erosion in sands and gravels
– Differential sticking
• Thin impermeable, slick, and firm
– Low drillstring friction in uncased hole
– Good formation stability
 Drill Rate
• Effect of Fluid
Loss

2.5
Penetration Rate, ft/hr
2.0
– Wilcox Shale
20 % decrease
– 7900
15 mltoto8400
5 mlft

1.5
– 11 1/4 inch bit
1.0
– 750 lb WOB
– 50 RPM
.5

– Lime-base mud
0

0 5 10 15

Jets Fluid Loss (cc)

Water Course
 Filtrate Analysis

• Alkalinity (Pf/Mf)
– Measure of the water soluble ions found in the
continuous phase that neutralize acids
• Pf is a measure of the ion concentrations
to a Ph of 8.3
– Assumed concentration of OH- ions
• Mf is a measure of the ion concentration
down to a Ph of 4.3
– Assumed concentration primarily of CO=3 and
HCO-3 ions
 Filtrate Alkalinity

• Many drilling fluid additives require

control of carbonates, bicarbonates, and
hydroxyl ions to function
• Identification of contaminents that cause
the loss of viscosity, gel strength, and
filtrate control may require identification
of the ions contributing to alkalinity
 Filtrate Analysis (cont’d)

• Hardness
– Determines the concentration of polyvalent
metallic ions such as Ca+2, Mg+2, and Fe+2
– May cause loss of filtration control
– May cause loss of viscosity control
– May be required as inhibiting ions
• Prevent contamination of mud when encountered
• Prevent excessive dispersion of reactive drill solids
• Prevent or reduce hydration of formation clays to
improve bore hole stability
 Filtrate Analysis (cont’d)

• Salinity
– Measure of the chloride concentration in the
continuous phase (usually sodium chloride)
– May cause loss of filtration control
– May cause loss of viscosity control
– May be required for inhibition
• Prevent contamination of mud when encountered
• Prevent excessive dispersion of reactive drill solids
• Prevent or reduce hydration of formation clays to
improve bore hole stability
 Mud Solids

• Commercial solids
– Provide density
– Viscous fluid properties
– Lubrication
• Formation Solids
– Cause loss of viscosity control
– Erosion and abrasion of the circulating
system and drilling tools
– High filtrate losses
– Thick, sticky wall cakes
Solids Classification By Size
 Cation Exchange Capacity

• Concentration of reactive clays

– Bentonite equivalent in ppb
– Critical to control of viscosity, gel strength,
fluid loss to formation, wall cake quality,
lubrication, temperature stability,
contamination,……….
• Correct concentration
– Effective wall cake
– Low maintenance costs
– Efficient rheology
 Drill Rate
• •Drilling
Statistical9,000 ft Well
Average
–•–11.5 ppg
Drilling
Mud mud
Dataweight
Solids 250
––3.0 specific graviity
–Unweighted
Density Mud
– 250 rotating hours
– Differential
200

Rig Days, Bits, Feet / Bit

Pressure Bits
– 2.4 to 2.7 specific gravity 150
– Viscosity
– 400 to 500 rotating hours
– Filtration 100
Rig Days

Ft. / Bit

50

0 5 10 15
Solids Content, Volume %
 Drill Rate
• Drilling Fluid Properties
– Viscosity
– Fluid Loss
Viscosity
– Oil Content
Drill Rate Increasing
d Loss
– Solids i
Flu O
il Con
tent
– Density Solids
Densit
y

Increasing
 Water-base Drilling Fluids

• Dispersed - Non Inhibited

• Dispersed - Inhibited
• Non Dispersed - Non Inhibited
• Non Dispersed - Inhibited
Dispersed Non-Inhibited Systems
• Typically used to drill upper hole sections.
• Usually formulated with fresh water and
many of their properties are derived from
dispersed drilled solids or bentonite.
• Flow properties are controlled by a,
thinner, or deflocculant
• Fluid loss is controlled by the addition of
bentonite and low viscosity polymers
 Solids

• Excessive concentrations of solids can

produce unacceptably high viscosities and
gel strengths, leading to an excessive
consumption of chemicals.
• Solids level is controlled by solids control
equipment and, or, dilution with water .
 Viscosity
• Plastic viscosity, if to high may indicate a
solids problem. Water can be added or
solids control equipment used to reduce
an undesirable solids content.
• Yield point and gel strengths are
decreased by the addition of thinners and
increased by bentonite and, or, polymer
additions.
 Fluid Loss Control

• Proper dispersion of the bentonite will

give a API fluid loss of approximately
10cc's at lower temperatures
• Polymers may be added to lower the
amount of fluid loss
 Advantages

• Make maximum use of drilled solids and

may reduce overall material consumption
• Can tolerate fairly high levels of drilled
solids at the lower mud weights.
• Can be converted to a dispersed inhibitive
type fluid if necessary
 Disadvantages

• Rapid build up of formation solids

• Unacceptably high viscosities and gel
strengths
• Excessively high dilution volumes that
increase the need for treating chemicals and
weighting materials, such as barites, often
limiting dispersed non-inhibited fluids to
densities below 12 lb/gal(1.44 sg)
 Disadvantages (cont’d)

• Severe hole erosion caused by dispersion

of the clays may cause problems in
directional drilling and cementation of
casing.
• Hydration or swelling, of water sensitive
shales may cause heaving or sloughing
conditions, balling of the bit, or the
formation of "mud rings."
 Disadvantages (cont’d)
• Dispersion or mobilization of clays in
sandstone formations can impair the
production of condensate from formation
pores.
• Soluble calcium and salt can cause
flocculation with deterioration of flow
properties and high levels of fluid loss.
• Lignosulfonate systems have largely
overcome these difficulties.
Dispersed Non-Inhibited fluid
Formulation
 Dispersed Inhibited Systems

Dispersed inhibitive fluids attempt to

combine dispersed clays and
deflocculants used for controlling
viscosity and fluid loss with a base fluid
or special additives that will limit or
inhibit the hydration of the formation and
cuttings.
 Salt Systems
• The hydration of clays can be decreased
by an increase in the salt level.
– Sodium chloride
– Calcium Chloride
– Potassium Chloride
– Sea water
– Brackish water or formation water which
has more than 1% salt or 6,000 mg/l
chloride ion
 Calcium Systems

• Calcium ions can exchange with the

sodium ions to inhibit hydratable
formation clays by producing a
hydrated but non-expanding complex
with a much reduced entrained water
volume.
• Calcium ions in relatively low
concentrations (500-2000 mg/l) will
compete with sodium ions.
 Calcium Systems
• Calcium is maintained in solution by
either adding lime (calcium hydroxide)
or gypsum (hydrated Calcium Sulphate.)
• Alkalinity controls the solubility of lime
and is adjusted by caustic soda additions.

– Ca(OH)2 Ca2 + 2OH- lime

– NaOH Na+ + OH- caustic soda

 Lime Muds

• Low lime
• Conventional
• High lime
 Low Lime Muds
• Offer the least inhibition, but have the
greatest temperature stability.
– Filtrate alkalinities 1-2 mls
– Excess lime 1 -2 ppb (2.85 - 5.71 km/m3)

– Temperatures less than 275° F (135° C.)

• Temperature instability arises through the

formation of a calcium aluminosilicate, a
cement-type material that thickens the
fluid.
 Conventional Lime Muds

• Good shale inhibition to shales and

tolerant to salt and anhydrite.
• Most commonly used system
– Excess lime 3-6 lbs/bbl (8.56-17.12 kg/m3)
– Filtrate alkalinity in the range of 3-6 mls.
 High Lime Muds

• Most inhibitive and tolerant to salt and

anhydrite
• Used when particularly hydratable
shales and clays are encountered.
– Excess lime 7-15 lb/bbl (19.97-42.80
kg/m3)
– Filtrate alkalinity 7-15 mls.
 Gypsum Muds
• Introduced to overcome the gelation
problems of lime muds
– Gypsum, or Calcium Sulfate, is added in
excess to create a calcium concentration
of 600-1200 mg/l in the filtrate.
– Caustic soda or lime is used to maintain
the pH within the 9.5-10.5 range.
– lignosulphonate is the deflocculant of
choice due its effectiveness at higher
calcium levels.
 Polymer Treated Systems
• Polymer treated systems use a polymer in
sufficient concentration to envelop the
cuttings and form a viscous layer on the
surface of solids, this reduces the water
migration to hydratable clays.
• Polymer Treated Systems are programmed
in the same manner as a dispersed system.
• A non-dispersed inhibitive system should
be used if the formations is sensitive to
dispersive action.
Non-Dispersed Non-Inhibited Systems
• In non-dispersed systems, no reagents are
added to deflocculate the solids (formation
clays or added bentonite) in the fluid.
• A chemically non-dispersive environment
and the absence of thinners provides a level
of inhibition.
• This systems main feature exploits the
characteristics of a flocculated system; higher
viscosities and the higher yield point to
plastic viscosity ratio.
 Advantages
• Lower solids requirements permit lower densities
to be used, reducing the chances of lost circulation
and increasing penetration rates in low pressured
formations.
• Altered flow properties provide better hole
cleaning, permitting lower annular circulating
rates, which helps prevent bore hole washouts.
• The higher degree of shear thinning provides for
lower bit viscosity, permitting more effective use
of hydraulic horsepower, resulting in faster
penetration rates.
 Extended Bentonite System

• In an extended bentonite system, the flow

properties of the bentonite are supplemented
by a high molecular weight synthetic
polymer,
• X-TEND II® is a dual function polymer that
also flocculates formation solids.
 Advantages

• Low solids - low weight muds

– Higher penetration rates are achieved
– Risk of lost circulation is reduced
• Shear thinning with moderate to high yield
point/plastic viscosity ratios
– Effective hole cleaning at lower annular velocities
– Lower equivalent circulating density
– Efficient use of available hydraulic horsepower.
 Advantages (cont’d)

• Economical, the major constituent is

bentonite and requirements for all
components are low.
• Oil can be incorporated into the system
without special emulsifiers.
• Easily converted to all types of dispersed
and non-dispersed systems.
• Solids removal by flocculation of drilled
solids
 Disadvantages
• Lack of inhibition and the low solids tolerance of
the system can give rise to excessive dilution rates
in dispersable clays and shales.
• Low tolerance for calcium and salt. If cement,
anhydrite or salt concentrations are encountered,
and cannot be diluted or treated out, the system
will have to be converted.
• Low tolerance for all types of solids. This system
can be only be weighted only to low levels; i.e.
11 lb/gal (± 1.32 sg)
Typical Formulation
Non-Dispersed Inhibited Systems

• Non-dispersed character reinforced with a base

fluid or special additives that inhibits the
hydration of the formation clays and cuttings
– Calcium ions, lime or gypsum
– Salt-Sodium Chloride or Potassium Chloride
– Polymers such as:
• Polysaccharide Xantham Gum (BARAZAN®)
• Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC-L®)
• Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide (EZ-MUD®)
PHPA Polymer-Potassium Chloride

• Bentonite formulated in the PHPA Polymer-

Potassium Chloride system (made up with fresh
water) is used to drill older formations in the
Rocky Mountains.
• The properties and the management of the
system are related more closely to the polymers
than to the bentonite.
 EZ-Mud

• Anionic, high molecular weight, partially

hydrolyzed polyacrylamide/polyacrylate
copolymer (PHPA)
– Absorbs onto cuttings and clays from the
wellbore by ionic attraction and hydrogen
bonding
– Prevents or slows down hydration and
dispersion of drill solids
– Protects against sloughing and erosion of
shales
 Experience

• Successfully run since 1970’s

– Maximum borehole stability
– Reduces bit balling
– Lubricity
– Gas hydrate suppression
– Easy to mix
– Readily soluble in fresh, brackish, or salt
waters
– Environmentally acceptable
 Advantages

• Excellent clay and shale hydration inhibitor

• Rapid drilling through shale with minimal
erosion
• With a 20% NaCl base fluid, aids inhibition to
reduce sloughing and erosion
• Tolerance for low gravity solids to > 6% by
volume
• Bottom hole temperature 250 F to 275 F
 Disadvantages

• Not suitable for drilling in large

sections of sand or unconsolidated
formations
• PHPA hydrolyzes at pH > 10 and will
not function as a shale stabilizer
• Calcium reduces solubility and limits
its effectiveness
• Must mainatain an excess of PHPA
polymer in mud filtrate
Typical Formulation
 CLAYSEAL

• A low molecular weight aliphatic

polyamine.
• Reduces dispersion and hydration of
reactive clays.
• Stable greater than 300°F.
• Environmentally safe for discharging in
offshore drilling.
 Inhibitive

• Chemically bonds to clay particles

– Believed to adsorb onto the clay surface,
thereby slowing down the absorption of water
and the resulting swelling/dispersion of the
shale and the shale cuttings
 Advantages

• Reduces the potential for bit and BHA

balling.
• Improves drill solids removal.
• Effective in freshwater, saltwater, lime, and
low solids systems.
• Aids in gauge to near gauge holes drilled
• Is completely water soluble.
 Disadvantages

• CLAYSEAL should be added to the system before

drilling and maintained above 4 lb/bbl
• If added to a non-dispersed system a thinner may
be required
• At high concentrations of CLAYSEAL and solids,
the CLAYSEAL will begin adsorbing to multiple
particles, leading to significant increases in
rheology.