|


 

| 
The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the
conservation of energy principle. Energy can cross the
boundaries of a closed system in the form of heat or
work. Energy transfer across a system boundary due
solely to the temperature difference between a system
and its surroundings is called heat.

Work energy can be thought of as the energy

expended to lift a weight.

2
|
 
 

closed system moving relative to a reference plane is shown

below where z is the elevation of the center of mass above the
!
reference plane and  is the velocity of the center of mass.

|losed
!

G
 System
Work
þ

Reference Plane, þ = 0

ï
 or the closed system shown above, the
j


j  or  


 j is expressed as

or

÷
ÿ ÷ 
÷ 

à
 ccording to classical thermodynamics, we consider the
energy added to be net heat transfer to the closed system
and the energy leaving the closed system to be net work
done by the closed system. So

[
 ÿ




Where
[
 [
ÿ [

 (  ÿ )

 
 
2

  
1

D
 or a system moving relative to a reference plane, the kinetic
energy ë and the potential energy
are given by

„ „2
 „ „ 

 „
 0
 
2


  0
  

The change in stored energy for the system is






§ow the j


j  or the  



 j
j
  is written as

[
 ÿ






6
 f the system does not move with a velocity and has
no change in elevation, the conservation of energy
equation reduces to

[
 ÿ


We will find that this is the most commonly used form

of the first law.

Ú
|
 
 
|j 

Since a thermodynamic cycle is composed of processes that

cause the working fluid to undergo a series of state changes
through a series of processes such that the final and initial
states are identical, the change in internal energy of the
working fluid is zero for whole numbers of cycles. The first
law for a closed system operating in a thermodynamic cycle
becomes

[
 ÿ

 
[



h
÷   

|omplete the table given below for a closed

system under going a cycle.

Process [net kJ net kJ
2 ±
1 kJ

1-2 +D -D
2-ï +20 +10
ï-1 -D
|ycle

( nswer to above problem) Row 1: +10, Row 2: +10, Row ï: -10, -D

Row à: +1D, +1D, 0

ë
Î



Work is energy expended when

a force acts through a
displacement. Boundary work
occurs because the mass of the
substance contained within the
system boundary causes a
force, the pressure times the
surface area, to act on the
boundary surface and make it
move.

10
Boundary work is then calculated from

The boundary work is equal to the area

under the process curve plotted on the
pressure-volume diagram.

§ote from the above figure:

is the absolute pressure and is always positive.

When  is positive,  is positive.
When  is negative,  is negative.
11
Since the areas under different process curves on a

diagram are different, the boundary work for each
process will be different. The next figure shows that
each process gives a different value for the boundary
work.

12
|

 

f the volume is held constant, = 0, and the boundary work

equation becomes
P 1

 diagram for  = constant

f the working fluid is an ideal gas, what will happen to the

temperature of the gas during this constant volume process?

1ï
|

P 2 1

Œ
*

Π
 


f the pressure is held constant, the boundary work equation

becomes

or the constant pressure process shown above, is the boundary

work positive or negative and why?

1à
|
  

f the temperature of an ideal gas system is held constant, then the

equation of state provides the pressure-volume relation


Œ


Then, the boundary work is

1D
!

j
j

The polytropic process is one in which the pressure-volume relation is

given as
Œ
j



The exponent a may have any value from minus infinity to plus infinity
depending on the process. Some of the more common values are given
below.
Œ
j ÷ 
a
|onstant pressure 0
|onstant volume 
sothermal & ideal gas 1
diabatic & ideal gas =


Gere, = is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure 
to specific

heat at constant volume . The specific heats will be discussed later.

16
The boundary work done during the polytropic process is
found by substituting the pressure-volume relation into
the boundary work equation. The result is

1Ú
 or an ideal gas under going a polytropic process, the
boundary work is

§otice that the results we obtained for an ideal gas

undergoing a polytropic process when n = 1 are identical
to those for an ideal gas undergoing the isothermal
process.
1h
÷   

Three kilograms of nitrogen gas at 2ڄ| and 0.1D MPa are

compressed isothermally to 0.ï MPa in a piston-cylinder device.
Determine the minimum work of compression, in kJ.

  §itrogen contained in a piston-cylinder device.

Œ
j |onstant temperature

2
System
Boundary P

1
§itrogen 
gas


Œ
*

 
 


1ë
Œ
 
 |heck the reduced temperature and pressure
for nitrogen. The critical state properties are found in Table -1.

!1 ( 27  273) 
!1 2.38 ! 2
!
126.2 
1 015
.

1 0.044

3.39

 2 2 1 0.088

Since
<<1 and

>2
cr, nitrogen is an ideal gas, and we use the ideal
gas equation of state as the property relation.

Π

20

| j 


or an ideal gas in a closed system (mass = constant), we have

1 2
Œ
1 1 Œ
2 2
1 2

21
Since the 's cancel, we obtain the combined ideal gas
equation. Since
2 =
1,

2 Œ1
1 Œ2

22
The net work is

 £12 0  £12 ÿ184.5 

on a per unit mass basis


O
 £12
 £12
ÿ615
.
 

The net work is negative because work is done
 the system

during the compression process. Thus, the work 

 the
system is 1hà.D kJ, or 1hà.D kJ of work energy is required to
compress the nitrogen.

2ï
÷   

Water is placed in a piston-cylinder device at 20 „|, 0.1 MPa.

Weights are placed on the piston to maintain a constant force on
the water as it is heated to à00 „|. Gow much work does the
water do on the piston?

  The water contained in the piston-cylinder device

System
Boundary
for water
Wb

Geat

Œ
 
: Steam tables

Œ
j: |onstant pressure

2à
  

 D

4


4

 3

 



 2



2

 

 -4
 -3
 -2
 -

 


 2

ë
 
›

| j 
:

Since there is no other mentioned in the problem, the net work is

Since the mass of the water is unknown, we calculate the work per unit
mass.

2D
 t
1 = 20„|,
sat = 2.ïïë kPa. Since
1 > 2.ïïë kPa, state 1 is
compressed liquid. Thus,

1  f at 20 „| = 0.001002 mï
kg

t
2 =
1 = 0.1 MPa,
2 >
sat at 0.1 MPa = ëë.61„|.

So, state 2 is superheated. Using the superheated tables at 0.1 MPa, à00„|

2 = ï.102Ú mï
kg

 £12 Œ† 2 ÿ 1

3 103 Œ

0.1 Œ
(3.1027 ÿ 0.001002)
 Œ
 3 Œ


310.2


The water does work on the piston in the amount of ï10.2 kJ
kg.

26
÷   

one kilogram of water is contained in a piston-cylinder device at 100 „|.

The piston rests on lower stops such that the volume occupied by the
water is 0.hïD mï. The cylinder is fitted with an upper set of stops. When
the piston rests against the upper stops, the volume enclosed by the
piston-cylinder device is 0.hà1 mï. pressure of 200 kPa is required to
support the piston. Geat is added to the water until the water exists as a
saturated vapor. Gow much work does the water do on the piston?

 : The water contained in the piston-cylinder device

P
Stops

System
Stops
Boundary


Water

2Ú
Œ
 
: Steam tables

Œ
j: |ombination of constant volume and constant pressure

processes to be shown on the
 diagram as the problem is solved.


| j 
:

The specific volume at state 1 is

1 0.835 m3 m3
1 = = = 0.835
 1 kg kg

t
1 = 100„|,
3 3
@ 0.001044  1.6720
 

Therefore,  1  and state 1 is in the saturation region; so

1 = 101.ïD kPa. Show this state on the P-v diagram.

2h
§ow let¶s consider the processes for the water to reach the final state.

Process 1-2: The volume stays constant until the pressure increases to
200 kPa. Then the piston will move.
3
2 1 0.835

Process 2-ï: Piston lifts off the bottom stops while the pressure stays constant.
Does the piston hit the upper stops before or after reaching the saturated
vapor state?

Let's set 3 0.841 3 3

3 = = = 0.841
 1  

t
ï =
2 = 200 kPa
3 3
@ =0.001061  =0.88578
 

Thus,   . So, the piston hits the upper stops before the water
reaches the saturated vapor state.
2ë
Process ï-à: With the piston against the upper stops, the volume
remains constant during the final heating to the saturated vapor
state and the pressure increases.

Because the volume is constant in process ï-to-à, à = ï = 0.hà1

mï
kg and à is a saturated vapor state. nterpolating in either the
saturation pressure table or saturation temperature table at à = g
gives

ï0
The net work for the heating process is (the ³other´ work is zero)

Later in |hapter à, we will apply the conservation of energy, or

the first law of thermodynamics, to this process to determine the
amount of heat transfer required.

ï1
÷   !

ir undergoes a constant pressure cooling process in which the temperature

decreases by 100„|. What is the magnitude and direction of the work for
this process?

 :
P
System 2 1
Boundary


ir


Œ
 
: deal gas law,


Œ
j: |onstant pressure


| j 
: §eglecting the ³other´ work

ï2

| j 
: §eglecting the ³other´ work

The work per unit mass is

O
 £12
 £12

 (!2 ÿ !1 )

 
(0.287 )(ÿ100  ) ÿ28.7
   

The work 

 the air is 2h.Ú kJ
kg.

ïï
÷   "

ind the required heat transfer to the water in Example à-à.

Review the solution procedure of Example à-à and then apply the first
law to the process.

|


÷:

ÿ



[
 £14 ÿ
 £14
14

n Example à-à we found that

 £14 1.2 

ïà
The heat transfer is obtained from the first law as

[
 £14
 £14 
14

where

14 4 ÿ 1 ( 4 ÿ 1 )

t state 1,
1 = 100„|,  = 0.hïD mï
kg and  1  at
1. The
quality at state 1 is

1 @  1 @

1 ÿ @ 0.835 ÿ 0.001043
1 0.499
@ 1.6720 ÿ 0.001043

1  @  1 @
419.06  (0.499)(2087.0)

1460.5

ïD
Because state à is a saturated vapor state and à = 0.hà1 mï
kg,
interpolating in either the saturation pressure table or saturation
temperature table at à =  gives

4 2531.48

So

14  ( 4 ÿ 1 )

(1  )(2531.48 ÿ 1460.5)

1071.0 
The heat transfer is
[
 £14
 £14 
14
1.2   1071.0 
1072.2 

Geat in the amount of 10Ú2.à2 kJ is added to the water.

ï6
jj#|$ ÷
÷ 
$ %

Before the first law of thermodynamics can be applied

to systems, ways to calculate the change in internal
energy of the substance enclosed by the system
boundary must be determined.

or real substances like water, the property tables are

used to find the internal energy change. or ideal
gases the internal energy is found by knowing the
specific heats.

ïÚ
Physics defines the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of a unit of mass of a substance one degree as
the specific heat at constant volume  for a constant-
volume process, and the specific heat at constant pressure

for a constant-pressure process.

Recall that enthalpy  is the sum of the internal energy  and

the pressure-volume product
.

 Œ
n thermodynamics, the specific heats are defined as

ïh
The ideal gas specific heats are written in terms of
ordinary differentials as

The change in internal energy and enthalpy of ideal gases

can be expressed as

ïë
 
&| |

$ %

Using the definition of enthalpy (
) and writing the

differential of enthalpy, the relationship between the specific heats
for ideal gases is
 
    ( ! )
 !  !  !
   

where is the particular gas constant. The specific heat ratio =

(fluids texts often use ë instead of =) is defined as




à0
!
 j

'


1. Sketch the system and show energy interactions across the boundaries.

2. Determine the property relation. s the working substance an ideal gas

or a real substance? Begin to set up and fill in a property table.

ï. Determine the process and sketch the process diagram. |ontinue to fill
in the property table.

à. pply conservation of mass and conservation of energy principles.

D. Bring in other information from the problem statement, called physical

constraints, such as the volume doubles or the pressure is halved
during the process.

6. Develop enough equations for the unknowns and solve.

à1
÷   (

tank contains nitrogen at 2ڄ|. The temperature rises to 12ڄ| by

heat transfer to the system. ind the heat transfer and the ratio of the
final pressure to the initial pressure.

 : §itrogen in the tank.

System
boundary




„


§ „ ge
g


Œ




 

 

à2
Œ
 
: §itrogen is an ideal gas. The ideal
gas property relations apply. Let¶s assume constant
specific heats. (You are encouraged to rework this
problem using variable specific heat data.)

Œ
j: Tanks are rigid vessels; therefore, the process

is constant volume.

|


':

2 1

àï
Using the combined ideal gas equation of state,

Œ
2 2 Œ
1 1

2 1

Since is the particular gas constant, and the process is constant

volume,

2 1
Œ2 2 (127  273) 
1.333
Œ1 1 ( 27  273) 

àà
|


÷:

The first law closed system is

÷
ÿ ÷
÷

 ÿ


or nitrogen undergoing a constant volume process ( = 0), the

net work is ( other = 0)

àD
Using the ideal gas relations with net = 0, the first law
becomes (constant specific heats)

The heat transfer per unit mass is

à6
÷   )

ir is expanded isothermally at 100„| from 0.à MPa to 0.1 MPa. ind the
ratio of the final to the initial volume, the heat transfer, and work.

  ir contained in a piston-cylinder device, a closed system

Œ
j |onstant temperature

1
System
P
boundary

2

°

 


Œ
á g„m f „ !º j



àÚ
Œ
 
 ssume air is an ideal gas and use the ideal gas
property relations with constant specific heats.

Π

  (2 ÿ 1 )

|


÷

÷
ÿ ÷
÷

 ÿ


The system mass is constant but is not given and cannot be calculated;
therefore, let¶s find the work and heat transfer per unit mass.

àh

| j 


|


' or an ideal gas in a closed system (mass =

constant), we have
1 2
Œ
1 1 Œ
2 2
1 2
Since the 's cancel and
2 =
1

2 Œ1 0.4 Œ

4
1 Œ2 01
. Œ

àë
Then the work expression per unit mass becomes

The net work per unit mass is


O
 £12 0  O £12 148.4


D0
§ow to continue with the conservation of energy to find the heat
transfer. Since
 =
1 = constant,

12 
12  (!2 ÿ !1 ) 0

So the heat transfer per unit mass is

[





 ÿ O

 0

 O


148.4


The heat transferred 
the air during an isothermal expansion

process equals the work 
.
D1