Wind Actions

Wind Actions <AS/NZS 1170.2: 2002>

 Forces caused by pressures induced by wind passing over
structure
Flow lines

Windward Leeward
wall wall

Air moving away from surface

Suction on Roof
Air moving Suction
towards surface
Pressure
Pressure on Suction on
Windward wall Leeward wall
Pressure from wind on windward surfaces

Wind direction
Pressure

Wind damage scenario

 Suction on roof surfaces

Wind direction

Wind damage scenario

 Suction on side wall

Wind direction

Wind damage scenario

Suction on leeward wall

Wind direction

Wind damage scenario

 Other Effects
 Internal
pressure
 Drag on long roofs or side walls

 Drag on individual members

 Dynamic effects
 <AS/NZS 1170.2: 2002>


Includes: Buildings & structures
 < height 200 m
 roof spans < 100 m

 
Need additional information for:

 Off-shore structures
 Bridges
 Transmission towers
 Wind Actions
Distributed - derived from pressures
that act over complete surfaces
Estimated - from meteorological
models of wind speed for events in a region
and estimated aerodynamics of building
Short-term - < 3 second peak gust
 Wind Actions - Design Strategy
1. Calculate Site Wind Speed Vsit, b
(wind characteristics at site
before considering buildings)
2. Determine Design Wind Speed Vdes,
(wind speeds in major directions
for consideration in building design)

3. Determine Design wind pressure p on surfaces

4. Calculate Wind actions on elements
 Wind from at least four directions

 Forces on surfaces or structural elements from

• wind pressure or suction

• frictional drag
 Action effects (forces and moments) on complete structures
 1. Site wind Speed Vsit, b < 2.3>
Find for each Cardinal Direction – N, NE, E, SE, SW, W, NW

Vsit, b  VR M d ( M z ,cat M s M t )
Regional 3 sec gust
wind speed (m/s)
Wind directional
multiplier
Terrain and structure
height multiplier
Shielding multiplier
Topographic multiplier
 Recurrence intervals for
environmental actions
Importance Level (Given in BCA)
In resisting environmental actions (wind,
earthquake, snow), designer must select
recurrence interval
 Event severity for ultimate limit states
Risk to life
Number of if failure?
people using
structure? Importance
of structure
to community?
Recurrence intervals for wind speeds
Use BCA (Table B1.2a) to determine Importance Level
Buildings which are utilized by a large number of people
have a higher Importance Level
1 = least risk to people

 2 = most normal structures

 3 = most public or large buildings
 4 = essential services or
dangerous activities
Power Plant
 Recurrence intervals for Ultimate
wind speeds BCA Table B1.2b
Annual Probability of Exceedance for
Ultimate Limit States Events
Increasing risk
Importance Annual Probability of
level exceedance(Years)
Cyclonic Non-cyclonic

1 Low hazard 1:500 1:200

2 Normal 1:500 1:500
3 Large number of people 1:1000 1:1000
4 Post-disaster or hazardous 1:2000 1:2000

Means average recurrence interval ~ 500 years

 Recurrence intervals for
Serviceability wind speeds
Annual Probability of Exceedance for
Serviceability Events
AS 1170.0 Appendix C
Increasing risk
Function Category Probability

1 1:20
2 1:20
3 1:20
4 1:20

Means average recurrence interval ~ 20 years

 Wind velocity varies
Regional Wind Speed VR for location - some
regions prone to
extreme wind events
 Regions are prone to different extreme events <Table 3.1>
 Hence, design Regional Wind Speed VR varies with location
 Each region (letter) reflects different severity of wind events
 Each sub-region (number) reflects local character sites

 Region A (1-7) - thunderstorm events

 Region W – special for Cook Strait, NZ

 Region B - decaying tropical cyclones

 Region C - tropical cyclones

 Region D - severe tropical cyclones

 Regional Wind Speeds
Region D Region C
Severe Tropical Tropical Cyclones
Cyclones
Cairns
Region B
Port Hedland Intermediate
20º
Region A4 Bundaberg
25º
Toowoomba
25º
Kalgoorlie
27º 30º
Sydney
30º Perth
Region A1 Region A2
Region A5
Region A3
 Wind Direction multiplier Md
 Md accounts for differences in gust wind speeds for
different directions at a particular site
N
 used in design for strength and serviceability
 Regions A and W < Table 3.2 > based on local meteorological
station data

 Regions B,C and D < 3.3.2 >

 max. wind speed likely to occur in any direction

 = 0.95 for actions resisted by major structural

elements, or on complete building
 =1.0 all other cases
 Terrain/height multiplier M z,cat
< Tables 4.1(A) & (B) >
 Terrain - examine roughness
of ground for some kilometres up-wind of site
 Can have quite different M z,catfor wind
from different directions
 Wind velocity increases with
height above ground

 Velocity increase is a function of

ground roughness and
turbulence in air stream
Decreasing roughness

Velocity
 Terrain/height multiplier M z,cat
1 exposed, very open, obstructions < 1.5m
• eg desert, water for serviceability wind
2 open, scattered obstructions 1.5 - 10m
• eg farmland, airports,
water for ultimate wind

3 suburban, closely spaced obstructions 3 - 5 m

• eg forests, suburbs, light industrial areas

4 urban, closely spaced obstructions > 10m

• eg, city centres, heavy industrial
 Terrain/height multiplier M z,cat
Serviceability Limit State All Regions – use <Table 4.1 (A)>
Excerpt from
Multiplier (M z,cat)
<Table 4.1 (A)>
Height (z) m
Terrain Terrain Terrain Terrain
Ultimate Limit States Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
Regions A, W, B 3 0.99 0.85 0.75 0.75

5 1.05 0.91 0.75 0.75

10 1.12 1.00 0.83 0.75

Wind
20 1.19 1.08 0.94 0.75

40 1.24 1.16 1.04 0.85

Melbourne 100 1.29 1.24 1.16 1.03

Excerpt from Multiplier (M z,cat)

<Table 4.1 (B)> Height (z) m
Ultimate Limit States Terrain Category 1 & 2 Terrain Category 3 & 4

Regions C & D
3 0.90 0.80
5 0.95 0.80
10 1.00 0.89
20 1.13 1.05
Wind
40 1.25 1.25
100 1.40 1.40
 Terrain/height multiplier M z,cat
 Changes in terrain category
 Wind velocity changes slowly as
wind encounters different terrain
 Takes over 1000m for wind profile
of new terrain to be
fully established
Averaging of terrain category over distance upwind of
site depending on max structure height <Table 4.2(a)>
(use lagged response xi <Clause 4.2.3>)
 consider permanence of obstructions
 Roughness length zo
<Table 4.2(B)>

2.0 City buildings

(10 – 30 m)
1.0 Terrain Category 4
0.8 High density metropolitan

0.4 Centres of small towns

0.2 Suburban areas Terrain Category 3
0.06 Few trees, long grass

0.04 Crops

0.02 Rough open water, airfields

Terrain Category 2
0.002 (Flat) natural snow surface Terrain Category 1
 Worked Example 1.25
 15 
• New 15 m high warehouse xi  0.2 
 0.3  0.2 
 200 m

• Averaging length 1000m North

North

xi

xi West tc 3, Mz,cat = 0.89

North tc 2, Mz,cat = 1.05
East tc 3, Mz,cat = 0.89
South tc 2&3, Mz,cat = 0.98
 Buildings upwind
Shielding multiplier Ms can decrease wind
velocity at design site
< Table 4.3 >
 Ms factor allows for the protection of the design site by buildings
immediately upwind
 Only buildings the same size or larger than the designed building
can shield
 Buildings must be close < 20ht of the design site
 0.7 - 1.0
 0.85 suburban housing

Shielded

Not shielded
 Shielding multiplier Ms
 Can have different Ms from different directions

Wind direction
site 45o

20ht

 buildings (not trees) within 45o sector radius and 20h of

design site can provide shielding
Buildings taller than design
building in this sector can
shield the design building for
this wind direction
 Design summary - Ms
For each wind direction:
1. View potential shielding buildings in sector
Smaller buildings not
counted for shielding
45o b Wind direction
site 3 b1
b
2
20ht

Evaluate average roof height of all shielding buildings hs (roughly)

Evaluate average width (normal to wind stream)
of all shielding buildings bs
b1  b2  b3
In diagram bs 
3
 Design summary - Ms
 10 
Evaluate ls  ht   5  ns = number of buildings
In sector for shielding
 ns 
2. Find ls
s
hs bs

3. Use <Table 4.3>

(and interpolation if required)
to find Ms
 Topographic multiplier Mt
 Models effect of land shape on wind speeds
 Two very different phenomena:
Mlee specific high and long
Mh acceleration of wind mountain ranges can drag
over hills, ranges and high level winds down to
escarpments ground level
(used anywhere) (currently only used in NZ)

Applies to all hills Applies only to specific ranges

 Hill Shape Multiplier Mh
May be different for different wind directions
 Function of cross-sectional shape of hill taken in wind direction
 Position of building in relation to crest (x)
 Height of building above ground (z)

 Upwind slope of hill (H/2Lu)

Design site

Wind direction
hill

x
M
h

o
Wind direction
Hill properties
Design site

H/2
x
H

Lu

L2 L2
H = hill height Lu = distance from centre to half hill height
H/2 = half hill height L2 = edge of topographic zones
x = distance from crest to building site
 2. Design Wind Speed Vdes,
< 2.3>
 Wind speeds normal to the faces of the structure at the
proposed site
 Dependent on height and configuration of structure
 If orientation of building is known –
use speed profile for each orthogonal axis
 If orientation of building is not known –
use max directional wind speed for all directions
 Design Wind Speed Vdes, 
 Where orientation of structure on site is known
 determine Vsit,b
(including Md Mz,cat Ms Mt )
for 8 directions
 Interpolate to find winds

normal to building axes

 Where orientation of structure

on site is unknown
 Md = 1.0 and take worst case of
Vsit,b as Vdes and use for all parts
of structure
 N
Vdes 00
NW NE

Vdes 2700

W E

Vdes 900

SW V 1800 SE
des S
 Calculate Vsit = VR Md Mz,cat Ms Mt for each direction

 Interpolate between cardinal points

 Superimpose building orientation

 Read building wind speed

 3. Design wind pressure (p) and
distributed forces (f) < 2.4 >
p  (0.5 air ) [Vdes, ] C fig Cdyn
2

Pressure always acts normal to surface

+ve indicates towards surface Pressure

-ve indicates away from surface Suction

similar expressions

f  (0.5 air ) Vdes,  C fig Cdyn

2 wind

Shear of air over surface causes frictional drag

 Design wind pressure
Related to shape of roof or building, and the structure’s
response to fluctuations in wind

p , f  (0.5 air ) Vdes,  C fig Cdyn

2

Constant 1.2 kg/m3

Already evaluated from site wind speed
Related to shape of building and = 1 for normal structures
aerodynamics. Different expressions for: important for wind-
• internal pressure Cfig = Cp,i Kc sensitive structures
•External pressure Cfig = Cp,e Ka K K K
c l p

•Frictional drag Cfig = Cf Kc

 Internal Pressure Cfig = Cp,i Kc
 Openings – Designer selects combinations of openings to
give most adverse effects, given:
 Vents that are permanently open
 Doors, windows, ventilators that may or may not be left open

 Debris attack in tropical cyclones

Dominant openings – when one surface has larger

opening area than all of the others
Permeability – cracks and gaps in the envelope
that allow air through. 0.01 – 0.5% wall area
 Internal Pressures
 Holes in windward wall can be made by debris
 Other surfaces may also have openings

 Dominant opening in
 windward wall  PRESSURE inside
 side wall  suction inside
 leeward wall  suction inside
 roof space  PRESSURE in roof
 Internal pressure coefficient C p,i
< Table 5.1 >
<Part (A)> No dominant opening
(no single surface with more openings than all others combined.
<Part (B)> With dominant openings
Excerpt from < Table 5.1(A) >
Condition C p,i Example
Two or three walls equally permeable
(a) Windward wall permeable -0.1, +0.2
(b) Windward wall impermeable -0.3
If two values given, choose the
Wind direction considered for the one with the most adverse effect
scenario of openings

Eg. For maximum pressure

differential across windward wall,
choose most negative value.
External Pressures on Enclosed Buildings
Cfig = Cp,e Ka Kc Kl
Kp
External Pressure
Coefficient
Area reduction factor
Combination factor –
used to find actions where pressures on two or
more separate surfaces are combined
Local pressure factor –
only applies to cladding, cladding
fasteners & cladding support elements
Permeable cladding reduction factor –
only applies to negative pressures on permeable claddings, mesh or
roof tiles or cloth
 Surfaces of enclosed buildings for Cp,e
Walls
 W = windward wall – wind toward W
 S = side wall – wind parallel to S
 L = lee wall – wind away from L

R U R D
L S
W W S S L
S
Wind direction
Roofs
Wind direction
 R= side slope – wind runs across this slope
 U= upwind slope – wind runs up this slope
 D= downward slope – wind runs down this slope
 External pressure coefficient Cp,e

 side
leeward
walls
wall
C C < 0<(-0.65
0 (-0.5toto
-0.2)
-0.2) d

 roof Cp,e (-1.3
windward p,e to
wall p,e +0.5)
Cp,e (commonly -0.9) function of slope, position
>0 (~0.8)
<AS1170.2
on Table
building,Table 5.2(B)>
5.2(C)>
aspect5.2(A)> depending
worstofclose
ratio, height ontowidth
windward
building (b) edgeTable 5.3>
<AS1170.2
<AS1170.2
 Area averaging and local pressures
 Wind pressures vary in both space and time
 small gusts roll across structure (smaller than structure size)

 high suctions develop near edges (separation)

 pressure and suction can alternate near points of attachment

Higher uplift near edge

Highest uplift near corner
 Area Reduction Factor Ka & local
Pressure Factor K
Ka <5.4.2>
 Area averaging over large areas of roof or sidewall only
 Generally only applies to major structural elements

K <5.4.4> a
 Peak suctions in separation zones h  25m
 Function of
– size of contributory area
– position on buildings
 Only applies to cladding,
fixings and some cladding
support members b
a d
 Combination Factor Kc <Table 5.5>
 Design pressures are peak pressures or suction
- may not all occur at the same time
 Where any wind action is derived from pressures or suction on more than one
surface provided one pressure is not close to zero
- can reduce effect of combination
 Important for each element KaKc  0.8

Positive pressures on roofs

in combination with negative internal pressures
(from a wall opening) Kc = 0.8
Negative pressures on roofs or walls
in combination with positive internal pressures
Kc = 0.95

Where wind action from any single surface contributes

75% or more to an action effect Kc = 1
 Permeable cladding factor Kp
< 5.4.5 >
 reflects general porosity of whole cladding surface
(eg tiles, shade-cloth)
 Function of solidity ratio

Note: not leakiness due to windows or doors

 Dynamic Response Factor Cdyn
 Default value = 1.0
 Allows for dynamic excitation of wind-sensitive structure or
structural elements
 Must be calculated if natural frequency < 1 Hz

Along wind excitation Across wind excitation

 4. Wind Actions < 2.5 >
 Consider wind from at least four directions on structure
 Forces on surfaces or structural elements
 Combine internal and external pressures acting
simultaneously
• Same wind direction
• Same scenario of opening
• Consistent combination factors
Wind direction Cfig,U Eg. for portal design –
Cfig,D • Cpi Kc applies everywhere and is
derived from one opening scenario
Cfig,W
• Combined with Cfigs for all
Cpi Kc Cfig,L external surfaces
 Worked example
Wind loads on building elements

A church auditorium building is being designed for Waterman in Perth WA.

Only the westerly wind direction will be considered. The building will have
one door (900 × 2100 mm) and four windows (1800 × 1200 mm) on the
North and South walls, a stained glass window (2400 × 1200 mm) in the West
wall, and double doors on the East wall (total area 1800 × 2100 mm).
The site is at the top of a beach-side reserve near the Indian Ocean and
fronting a road. There are no buildings at all to the west of the church site.
All of the other buildings on the church site are behind the main
auditorium building.

Find: The total ultimate wind pressure on the stained glass window,
and the net uplift load per metre for the ultimate wind load on a highly
loaded portal (Examine half the rafter spanning 12.6 m on the rake.)
Portal spacing is 3.2 m.
 250 m
North
Scattered Mainly flat east of
limestone here for 400 m
outcrops,
grasses,
and saltbush
0.5 m Church
North Auditorium

coastline 2m 10 m 14 m
West Coast Drive
Site plan Waterman Church

23 m

7.8 m

24 m 2.7 m
?Solution
W1 Site wind speed
The BCA shows that this building has an Importance Level 3, and that for a
non-cyclonic wind region, the annual probability of exceedance is 1:1000.
The building is to be built in Perth, WA. <Figure 3.1> shows that Perth is in
Region A , and <Table 3.1> gives VR = 46m/s for 1:1000 wind in Region A.

For this problem, only one direction needs to be considered. Region A1 has
Md = 1.0 for westerly winds <Table 3.2>.
For westerly winds, the approach to the structure is over
•low scrub, grass and small rocky outcrops. (Terrain Category 2)
•Open ocean (Terrain Category 2 for the ultimate wind event).

Average roof height = (7.8  2.7  = 5.25 m

2
<Table 4.2A> shows that the averaging distance for this building is 1000m.
All terrain within 1000m to the west of the Church is Terrain Category 2.
<Table 4.1(A)> is used for Region A ultimate wind speeds.
M z,cat = 0.91 (for z = 5 m and Terrain Category 2)
There are no upwind buildings for westerly winds, so M s  1.0
The topography corresponds to an escarpment with the building near the crest.
Here H =14 m, and Lu = distance between the 7 m and the 14 m contours.
Scaling off the site plan gives Lu = 100 m.
H 14
Hence     0.07 <4.4.2>
2 Lu 2  100

Also L1 = greater of 0.36  100 or 0.4  14 = 36 m

And as building is at the crest x = 0
14
<4.4.2> gives M t 1  1.10
3.5 (5.25  36)
Vsit,west VR M d ( M (z,cat) M s M t )
46 1.0 (0.911.0 1.10)  46.0 m / s <2.2>

W2 Design wind speed

Problem only considers wind blowing normal to the gable ie. from the west.
 V des, = V sit,west = 46.0 m/s <2.3>
W3 Wind pressure on surfaces
p (0.5 air ) [Vdes ]2
C fig C dyn
None of the structural elements will have a natural frequency less than 1.0 Hz
 C dyn = 1.0 <6.1>
STAINED GLASS WINDOW – on windward wall
Internal Pressures outside inside
Design scenario will maximise inward pressure differential ie. Use a negative
internal pressure – opening on side wall
Total building leakage assuming 0.1% permeability and one door and window
= area of all other surfaces  0.1%
= [(2  12.6  24) + (2  23(2.7 + (7.8 – 2.7)/2)) + (2.7  24)]  0.1/100
(roof) (end walls) (other side)
= 0.91 m 2
(0.9  2.1  1.8 1.2 )
permeability ratio  2
 4.45
0.91 m
Interpolating in <Table 5.1(B)> gives 0.92 Cp,e on the side wall
For windward end of side wall Cp,e = -0.65
ie. Cp,i = 0.92  (-0.65) = -0.6
External Pressures
External pressure coefficient for windward wall
Cp,e = +0.7 <Table 5.2(A)>
The Area Reduction Factor Ka does not apply to the windward wall. However,
if the area of the window is small enough, the Local Pressure Factor may
apply. (The window pane is part of the cladding.)
a is the minimum of h, 0.2d and 0.2b.
Here a = 0.2b = 4.6 m and the limiting area is 0.25a2 = 5.29 m2

The area of the stained glass window is 2.4  1.2 = 2.88 m2

ie the area of the window is less than the limiting area for local pressures, so
the Local Pressure Factor (K) applies.
K = 1.25 <Table 5.6>

The window is not porous, so the reduction factor for porous cladding does
not apply. Kp = 1.0
Combined forces
A combination of internal and external pressures will allow the use of the
Combination Factor Kc
However, there is no reduction for positive wall pressures and negative
internal pressures <Table 5.5>
Hence Kc = 1.0

Cfig (internal) = Cp,i  Kc <5.2>

= -0.6  1.0 = -0.6
= (0.5 air) [Vdes ] C fig C dyn
2
Pi <2.4.1>
= 0.5  1.2  46.02  (-0.6)  1.0 = -762 Pa (suction)

Cfig (external) = Cp,e Ka Kc K Kp < 5.2>

= 0.7  1.0  1.0  1.25  1.0 = 0.875
= (0.5 air) [Vdes ] C fig C dyn
2
and Pe <2.4.1>
= 0.5  1.2  46.02  (+0.875)  1.0 = 1111 Pa (pressure)

ie. Net pressure = Pe – Pi = 1111 + 768 = 1873 Pa (inwards)

= 1.87 kPa
ROOF UPLIFT outside
Internal Pressures inside
Design scenario will maximize outward pressure differential
ie. use a positive internal pressure – opening on windward wall.
But there are no potential openings on the windward wall, so take case of
closed building – all walls equally permeable.
<Table 5.1(A)> gives two cases –0.3 or +0.0. Here 0.0 is the most positive.

External Pressures R
R
With the wind from the west, the wind is parallel to
the ridge and the two roof surfaces are both R surfaces.
Here h 5.25
  0.219 ie.  0.5 wind
d 24
 over end 5.25 m of roof <Table 5.3(A)> gives Cp,e = –0.9 or –0.4
use –0.9 as it is most negative.
End rafter supports a rectangular area of roof going 1.6 m into the building.
The next one supports a rectangle of width 3.2 m going from 1.6 m to 4.8 m
from the western end.
The second rafter has a larger contributory area and is entirely within the
highly loaded region in the western 5.25 m of the roof. It will be the critical
rafter for wind uplift design and will have: C p,e = – 0.9

The portal rafter supports a large area, but the aerodynamics of the roof has
two surfaces one on each side of the ridge. The area of each surface carried by
the rafter is 12.6  3.2 = 40.3 m2
The Area Reduction Factor Ka for roofs and side walls can be found by
interpolation in <Table 5.4>. Interpolating between A = 25 m2 and
A = 100 m2 gives Ka = 0.88.

The area supported by one panel is too large to consider a Local Pressure
Factor  K = 1.0 <5.4.4>
The surface is not porous, so the reduction factor for porous cladding (Kp)
does not apply. Kp = 1.0 <5.4.5>
Combined forces
<Table 5.5> allows a reduction for roof suction and positive internal pressure.
However, in this case, the internal pressure is 0  all the effect comes
from external pressure so Combination Factor Kc
There is no reduction for positive wall pressures and negative internal
pressures Kc = 1.0

Cfig (internal) = Cp,i  Kc <5.2>

= 0  1.0 = 0
= (0.5 air) [Vdes ] C
2
Pi fig C dyn <2.4.1>
=0

Cfig (external) = Cp,e Ka Kc K Kp < 5.2>

= -0.9  0.88 1.0 1.0  1.0 = -0.792
= (0.5 air) [Vdes ] C fig C dyn
2
Pe <2.4.1>
= 0.5  1.2  46.02  (-0.792)  1.0 = -1005 Pa (pressure)

ie. Net pressure = Pe – Pi = -1005 – 0 = -1005 Pa (outwards)

= -1.0 kPa
ie. Linear upward load on 3.2 m wide area = -1.0  3.2 = 3.2 kN/m