Laws of Chemical Changes

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Chapter 2
LAWS OF CHEMICAL
CHANGES
2-1
Definitions for Components of Matter
Element - the simplest type of substance with unique physical and

chemical properties. An element consists of only one type of atom. It
cannot be broken down into any simpler substances by physical or
chemical means.
Molecule - a structure that consists of two or
more atoms that are chemically bound together
and thus behaves as an independent unit.
Figure 2.1
2-2
Definitions for Components of Matter
Compound - a substance
composed of two or more elements
which are chemically combined.
Figure 2.1
Mixture - a group of two or more

elements and/or compounds that
are physically intermingled.
2-3
• Present the laws of chemical changes. These

laws were inferred from several experiments
conducted during the 18th century using a
balance for the measurements:
2-4
laws of chemical changes
• a. Law of Conservation of Mass

• b. Law of Definite Proportion
• c. Law of Multiple Proportion
2-5
Law of Conservation of Mass:
• In a chemical reaction, no change in mass

takes place. The total mass of the products is
equal to the total mass of the reactant.
2-6
2-7
• Antoine Lavoisier, a brilliant

French chemist, formulated this
law by describing one of his
experiments involving mercuric
oxide. He placed a small amount
of mercuric oxide, a red solid,
inside a retort and sealed the
vessel tightly.
2-8
2-9
• He weighed the system, and then subjected it

to high temperature. During the heating, the
red solid turned into a silvery liquid. This
observation indicated that a chemical reaction
took place.
• After which, the setup was cooled and then
weighed. The weight of the system was found
to be the same as before heating.
2-10
Law of Mass Conservation:
The total mass of substances does not change during a chemical

reaction.
reactant 1 + reactant 2 product
total mass = total mass
calcium oxide + carbon dioxide calcium carbonate
CaO + CO2 CaCO

3
56.08g + 44.00g 100.08g
2-11
Sample Problem:
• a. How many grams of water will be formed if

1.00 g hydrogen gas reacts with 8.00 g oxygen?
2-12
Sample Problem:
• a. How many grams of water will be formed if

1.00 g hydrogen gas reacts with 8.00 g oxygen?
The reaction can be represented by the
following word equation:
2-13
b. 5.58 g iron reacted with 3.21 g sulfur. How

many grams of iron (II) sulfide were produced?
2-14
2-15
c. Magnesium burns in air to form magnesium

oxide.
When 2.43 g magnesium was burned, 4.03 g

magnesium oxide was produced. How many
grams of oxygen reacted with the magnesium?
2-16
2-17
• d. Ammonia is produced by the reaction of

nitrogen with hydrogen.
• How many grams of nitrogen combined with

50.0 g hydrogen is needed to yield 283.3 g
ammonia?
2-18
2-19
Law of Definite Proportion:
• A compound always contains the same

constituent elements in a fixed or definite
proportion by mass.
• If water samples coming from different

sources are analyzed, all the samples will
contain the same ratio by mass of hydrogen to
oxygen.
2-20
• Illustrate the application of this law using the

previous example of magnesium reacting with
oxygen:
• a. Describe an experiment wherein different amounts
of magnesium powder are heated in air.
2-21
• b. Magnesium burns brightly in air and reacts with

oxygen. During the reaction, the gray powder turns
into a white substance. The reaction causes the weight
of the solid to increase.
• c. The following data were collected:
2-22
2-23
• d. Ask them to complete the third column by

applying the Law of Conservation of Mass.
• e. Ask them to fill up the fourth column by
dividing the mass of oxygen (third column) by
the mass of the magnesium (first column).
2-24
Figure 2.2
Law of Definite (or Constant) Composition

(Proportion):
No matter the source, a particular compound is
composed of the same elements in the same parts
(fractions) by mass.
Calcium carbonate
Analysis by Mass Mass Fraction Percent by Mass

(grams/20.0g) (parts/1.00 part) (parts/100 parts)
8.0 g calcium 0.40 calcium 40% calcium
2.4 g carbon 0.12 carbon 12% carbon
9.6 g oxygen 0.48 oxygen 48% oxygen
20.0 g 1.00 part by mass 100% by mass
2-25
Solve the following problems:
• a. In the first problem given earlier, it was

given that 1.00 g hydrogen combines with 8.00
g oxygen. How many grams of hydrogen will
react with 10.00 g oxygen?
• b. In the previous set of problem, it was seen
that 5.58 g iron reacted with 3.21 g sulfur.
Based on this information, calculate how many
grams of iron will combine with 80.0 g sulfur.
2-26
2-27
Sample Problem 2.1 Calculating the Mass of an Element in a Compound
PROBLEM: Pitchblende is the most commercially important compound of

uranium. Analysis shows that 84.2 g of pitchblende contains
71.4 g of uranium, with oxygen as the only other element. How
many grams of uranium can be obtained from 102 kg of
pitchblende?
2-28
Sample Problem 2.1 Calculating the Mass of an Element in a Compound
PROBLEM: Pitchblende is the most commercially important compound of

uranium. Analysis shows that 84.2 g of pitchblende contains
71.4 g of uranium, with oxygen as the only other element. How
many grams of uranium can be obtained from 102 kg of
pitchblende?
PLAN: The mass ratio of uranium/pitchblende is the same no matter
the source. We can use the ratio to find the answer.
SOLUTION:
mass(kg) of pitchblende mass (kg) of uranium =
mass(kg) uranium in pitchblende
mass(kg) pitchblende x
mass(kg) of uranium mass(kg) pitchblende
71.4kg uranium
= 102 kg pitchblende x = 86.5 kg
mass(g) of uranium 84.2kg pitchblende uranium
1000g
86.5 kg uranium x = 8.65 x 104g uranium
kg
2-29
Law of Multiple Proportions:
• If two elements can combine to form more

than one compound, the masses of one element
that will combine with a fixed mass of the
other element are in a ratio of small whole
numbers.
2-30
a. In carbon monoxide, 1.00 g carbon combines

with 1.33 g oxygen; whereas, in carbon
dioxide, 1.00 g carbon combines with 2.66 g
oxygen.
b. It can be seen that the ratio is 1:2.
2-31
Illustrate the application of this law using the

example of carbon which reacts with oxygen to
form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
a. In carbon monoxide, 1.00 g carbon combines
with 1.33 g oxygen; whereas, in carbon
dioxide, 1.00 g carbon combines with 2.66 g
oxygen.
b. It can be seen that the ratio is 1:2.
2-32
• Remind them that laws are derived from

experimental results. A theory is formulated to
provide an explanation to the laws.
2-33

If elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different
masses of B that combine with a fixed mass of A can be expressed
as a ratio of small whole numbers.
Example: Carbon Oxides A & B
Carbon Oxide I : 57.1% oxygen and 42.9% carbon
Carbon Oxide II : 72.7% oxygen and 27.3% carbon
2-34

If elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different
masses of B that combine with a fixed mass of A can be expressed
as a ratio of small whole numbers.
Example: Carbon Oxides A & B
Carbon Oxide I : 57.1% oxygen and 42.9% carbon
Carbon Oxide II : 72.7% oxygen and 27.3% carbon
Assume that you have 100g of each compound.
In 100 g of each compound: g O = 57.1 g for oxide I & 72.7 g for oxide II
g C = 42.9 g for oxide I & 27.3 g for oxide II
gO 57.1
= = 1.33
gC 42.9
gO 72.7
= = 2.66
gC 27.3
2.66 g O/g C in II 2
=
1.33 g O/g C in I 1
2-35
2-36
• Dalton’s Atomic Theory, proposed by John

Dalton, can be used to explain the laws of
chemical change. This theory is based on the
following set of postulates:
2-37
• 1. Elements are made up of very small

particles known as atoms.
2-38
• 2. All the atoms of an element are identical in

mass and size, and are different from the atoms
of another element. Dalton used the different
shapes or figures to represent different
elements, as follows:
2-39
• 3. Compounds are composed of atoms of

more than one element, combined in definite
ratios with whole number values.
2-40
• 4. During a chemical reaction, atoms

combine, separate, or rearrange. No atoms are
created and no atoms disappear.
2-41
START
2-42
2-43
2-44
Dalton’s Atomic Theory

The Postulates
1. All matter consists of atoms.
2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into

atoms of another element.
3. Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other

properties and are different from atoms of any other
element.
4. Compounds result from the chemical combination of

a specific ratio of atoms of different elements.
2-45

explains the mass laws
Mass conservation
Atoms cannot be created or destroyed postulate 1
or converted into other types of atoms. postulate 2

Since every atom has a fixed mass, postulate 3
during a chemical reaction atoms are combined
differently and therefore there is no mass change
overall.
2-46

Definite composition
Atoms are combined in compounds in postulate 3

specific ratios
and each atom has a specific mass. postulate 4
So each element has a fixed fraction of the total mass

in a compound.
2-47

Multiple proportions
Atoms of an element have the same mass

postulate 3
and atoms are indivisible. postulate 1
So when different numbers of atoms of elements
combine, they must do so in ratios of small, whole
numbers.
Figure 2.3
2-48
2-49
Figure 2.7 General features of the atom today.

•The atom is an electrically neutral, spherical entity composed of a positively
charged central nucleus surrounded by one or more negatively charged
electrons.
•The atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
2-50
• Ask them to recall the particles contained in an

atom (or the subatomic particles) and
• differentiate the particles in terms of location,
charge, and relative mass by filling up the
• following table:
2-51
2-52
2-53
• Confirm that the above numbers are defined by

the following equations:
• a. Atomic number = number of protons =
number of electrons in a neutral atom
• b. Mass number = number of protons +
number of neutrons
2-54
Table 2.2 Properties of the Three Key Subatomic Particles
Charge Mass
Location
Name(Symbol) Relative Absolute(C)* Relative(amu)† Absolute(g) in the Atom
Proton (p+) 1+ +1.60218x10-19 1.00727 1.67262x10- Nucleus

24
Neutron (n0) 0 0 1.00866 1.67493x10-24 Nucleus
Outside
Electron (e-) 1- -1.60218x10-19 0.00054858 9.10939x10-28 Nucleus
* The coulomb (C) is the SI unit of charge.

† The atomic mass unit (amu) equals 1.66054x10-24 g.
2-55
Atomic Symbols, Isotopes, Numbers
A
Z
X The Symbol of the Atom or Isotope
X = Atomic symbol of the element
A = mass number; A = Z + N
Z = atomic number
(the number of protons in the nucleus)
N = number of neutrons in the nucleus
Isotope = atoms of an element with the same

number of protons, but a different number
of neutrons
See Laboratory Tools
2-56 Figure 2.8

• Ask them to recall the information about the

composition of an atom provided by the
following:
• • Atomic number
• • Mass number
• Confirm that the above numbers are defined by
the following equations:
• • Atomic number = number of protons =
number of electrons in a neutral atom
• • Mass number = number of protons +
number of neutrons
2-57
• Worksheet: Identifying sub-atomic particles
2-58
• Introduce the concept of isotopes – atoms of an

element having the same atomic number
• but different mass number. The existence of
isotopes was shown by mass spectroscopy
• experiments, wherein elements were found to
be composed of several types of atoms, each
• with different masses.
2-59
• a. The atomic number identifies an element.

The atoms of isotopes of an element have
• the same number of protons and electrons.
• b. The atoms of isotopes of an element differ
in the number of neutrons.
2-60
The Mass Spectrometer
• The most direct and most accurate method for

determining atomic and molecular
• masses is mass spectrometry, which is depicted
in Figure 3.3 .
2-61
2-62
• In one type of a mass spectrometer, a gaseous

sample is bombarded by a stream of high-
energy electrons.
• Collisions between the electrons and the
gaseous atoms (or molecules) produce positive
• ions by dislodging an electron from each atom
or molecule.
2-63
• 1. What does a mass spectrometer do?

• 2. How does the mass spectro-meter separate
• isotopes of different masses?
2-64
• These positive ions (of mass m and charge e )

are accelerated by two oppositely charged
plates as they pass through the plates. The
emerging ions are defl ected into a circular
path by a magnet.
2-65
• The fi rst mass spectrometer, developed in the

1920s by the English physicist F. W. Aston, †
was crude by today’s standards. Nevertheless,
it provided indisputable evidence of the
existence of isotopes—neon-20 (atomic mass
19.9924 amu and natural abundance 90.92
percent) and neon-22 (atomic mass 21.9914
amu and natural abundance
• 8.82 percent).
2-66
• When more sophisticated and sensitive mass

spectrometers became available,
• scientists were surprised to discover that neon
has a third stable isotope with an
• atomic mass of 20.9940 amu and natural
abundance 0.257 percent ( Figure 3.4 ). This
2-67
• example illustrates how very important

experimental accuracy is to a quantitative
science
• like chemistry. Early experiments failed to
detect neon-21 because its natural abundance
• is just 0.257 percent. In other words, only 26 in
10,000 Ne atoms are neon-21. The
• masses of molecules can be determined in a
similar manner by the mass spectrometer.
2-68
• 10. To apply the concept of isotopes, ask them

to complete the following table containing
• information about the isotopes of hydrogen:
2-69
2-70
2-71
complete the following concept

map showing the relationship of
these particles
2-72
2-73
2-74
2-75
• 11. Emphasize that each element has a

characteristic atom.
• a. Dalton differentiated the elements and their
atoms through drawings.
• b. However, in present day, elements are
differentiated and represented through
symbols.
• i. Many symbols are abbreviations derived
from the name of the element.
• ii. Some symbols are derived from their Latin
2-76
names.
• Call five or more learners to write some

elements and their names and symbol on the
board.
2-77
• Nomenclature…………………
2-78
2-79
2-80
The Mass Spectrometer and Its Data

Figure 2.9
2-81
Sample Problem 2.2 Determining the Number of Subatomic

Particles in the Isotopes of an Element
PROBLEM: Silicon(Si) is essential to the computer industry as a major

component of semiconductor chips. It has three naturally
occurring isoltopes: 28Si, 29Si, and 30Si. Determine the number
of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each silicon isotope.
PLAN: We have to use the atomic number and atomic masses.
SOLUTION: The atomic number of silicon is 14. Therefore
28Si has 14p+, 14e- and 14n0 (28-14)
29Si has 14p+, 14e- and 15n0 (29-14)
30Si has 14p+, 14e- and 16n0 (30-14)
2-82
Sample Problem 2.3 Calculating the Atomic Mass of an Element

PROBLEM: Silver(Ag: Z = 47) has 46 known isotopes, but only two occur
naturally, 107Ag and 109Ag. Given the following mass
spectrometric data, calculate the atomic mass of Ag:
Isotope Mass(amu) Abundance(%)
107Ag 106.90509 51.84
109Ag 108.90476 48.16
PLAN: We have to find the weighted average of the isotopic masses,
so we multiply each isotopic mass by its fractional abundance
and then sum those isotopic portions.
SOLUTION:
multiply by fractional portion of atomic mass
mass(g) of each abundance of each atomic mass
from each isotope
isotope isotope
add isotopic portions
mass portion from 107Ag =
106.90509amu x 0.5184 = 55.42amu
mass portion from 109Ag = 108.90476amu x 0.4816 = 52.45amu
atomic mass of Ag = 55.42amu + 52.45amu = 107.87amu

2-83
The Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory
1. All matter is composed of atoms. The atom is the smallest body that
retains the unique identity of the element.
2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another

element in a chemical reaction. Elements can only be converted
into other elements in nuclear reactions.
3. All atoms of an element have the same number of protons and

electrons, which determines the chemical behavior of the element.
Isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons, and thus
in mass number. A sample of the element is treated as though its
atoms have an average mass.
4. Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or more

elements in specific ratios.
2-84
Figure 2.10 The modern periodic table.
2-85
Figure 2.11
The formation of an ionic compound.
Transferring electrons from the atoms of one

element to those of another results in an ionic
compound.
2-86
Figure 2.12 Factors that influence the strength of ionic bonding.
2-87
Sample Problem 2.4 Predicting the Ion and Element Forms
PROBLEM: What monatomic ions do the following elements form?
(a) Iodine (Z = 53) (b) Calcium (Z = 20) (c) Aluminum (Z = 13)
PLAN: Use Z to find the element. Find its relationship to the nearest
noble gas. Elements occurring before the noble gas gain
electrons and elements following lose electrons.
SOLUTION: I- Iodine is a nonmetal in Group 7A(17). It gains one

electron to have the same number of electrons as 54Xe.
Ca2+ Calcium is a metal in Group 2A(2). It loses two

electrons to have the same number of electrons as 18Ar.
Al3+ Aluminum is a metal in Group 3A(13). It loses three

electrons to have the same number of electrons as 10Ne.
2-88
Figure 2.13 Formation of a covalent bond between two H atoms.
Covalent bonds form when elements share electrons, which usually

occurs between nonmetals.
2-89
Replace w/
Figure 2.14 Elements that occur as molecules.
1e
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
(1) (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18)
H2
N2 O2 F2
P4 S8 Cl2
Se8 Br2
I2
diatomic molecules tetratomic molecules octatomic molecules
2-90
Figure 2.15
Elements that are polyatomic.
A polyatomic ion
2-91
Types of Chemical Formulas
A chemical formula is comprised of element symbols and numerical

subscripts that show the type and number of each atom present in the
smallest unit of the substance.
An empirical formula indicates the relative number of atoms of
each element in the compound. It is the simplest type of formula.
The empirical formula for hydrogen peroxide is HO.
A molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of

each element in a molecule of the compound.
The molecular formula for hydrogen peroxide is H2O2.
A structural formula shows the number of atoms and the

bonds between them, that is, the relative placement and
connections of atoms in the molecule.
The structural formula for hydrogen peroxide is H-O-O-H.
2-92
Figure 2.16 Some common monatomic ions of the elements.
Can you see any patterns?
2-93
Table 2.3 Common Monoatomic Ions Common ions are in blue.

Cations Anions
Charge Formula Name Charge Formula Name
H+ hydrogen H- hydride
Li+ lithium F- fluoride
+1 Na+ sodium -1 Cl- chloride

K+ potassium Br- bromide
Cs+ cesium I- iodide
Ag+ silver
Mg2+ magnesium
O2- oxide
Ca2+ calcium
S2- sulfide
+2 Sr2+ strontium -2
Ba2+ barium
Zn2+ zinc
Cd2+ cadmium
+3 Al3+ aluminum -3 N3- nitride

2-94
Naming binary ionic compounds
The name of the cation is written first, followed by that of the anion.
The name of the cation is the same as the name of the metal.
Many metal names end in -ium.
The name of the anion takes the root of the nonmetal name
and adds the suffix -ide.
Calcium and bromine form calcium bromide.
2-95
Sample Problem 2.5 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
PROBLEM: Name the ionic compound formed from the following pairs of
elements:
(a) magnesium and nitrogen (b) iodine and cadmium
(c) strontium and fluorine (d) sulfur and cesium
PLAN: Use the periodic table to decide which element is the metal and
which the nonmetal. The metal (cation) is named first and we
use the -ide suffix on the nonmetal name root.
SOLUTION: (a) magnesium nitride
(b) cadmium iodide
(c) strontium fluoride
(d) cesium sulfide
2-96
Sample Problem 2.6 Determining Formulas of Binary Ionic Compounds
PROBLEM: Write empirical formulas for the compounds named in Sample

Problem 2.5.
PLAN: Compounds are neutral. We find the smallest number of each

ion which will produce a neutral formula. Use subscripts to the
right of the element symbol.
SOLUTION:
(a) Mg2+ and N3-; three Mg2+(6+) and two N3-(6-); Mg3N2
(b) Cd2+ and I-; one Cd2+(2+) and two I-(2-); CdI2
(c) Sr2+ and F-; one Sr2+(2+) and two F-(2-); SrF2
(d) Cs+ and S2-; two Cs+(2+) and one S2- (2-); Cs2S
2-97
Table 2.4 (partial) Metals With Several Oxidation States
Element Ion Formula Systematic Name Common Name
Copper Cu+1 copper(I) cuprous

Cu+2 copper(II) cupric
Co+2 cobalt(II)
Cobalt
Co+3 cobalt (III)
Fe+2 iron(II) ferrous
Iron Fe+3 iron(III) ferric
Mn+2 manganese(II)
Manganese
Mn+3 manganese(III)
Sn+2 tin(II) stannous
Tin
Sn+4 tin(IV) stannic
2-98
Sample Problem 2.7 Determining Names and Formulas of Ionic

Compounds of Elements That Form More
Than One Ion
PROBLEM: Give the systematic names for the formulas or the formulas for
the names of the following compounds:
(a) tin(II) fluoride (b) CrI3

(c) ferric oxide (d) CoS
PLAN: Compounds are neutral. We find the smallest number of each

ion which will produce a neutral formula. Use subscripts to the
right of the element symbol.
SOLUTION: (a) Tin (II) is Sn2+; fluoride is F-; so the formula is SnF2.
(b) The anion I is iodide(I-); 3I- means that Cr(chromium) is +3.
CrI3 is chromium(III) iodide
(c) Ferric is a common name for Fe3+; oxide is O2-, therefore the
formula is Fe2O3.
(d) Co is cobalt; the anion S is sulfide(2-); the compound is cobalt
(II) sulfide.
2-99
Table 2.5 (partial) Some Common Polyatomic Ions
Formula Name Formula Name
Cations
NH4 + ammonium H3O+ hydronium
Common Anions
CH3COO- acetate CO3-2 carbonate
CN- cyanide CrO4-2 chromate

OH- hydroxide Cr2O7-2 dichromate
ClO3- chlorate O2-2 oxide
NO2- nitrite SO4-2 sulfate
NO -
3 nitrate PO4-3 phosphate
MnO4- permanganate
2-
Figure 2.17 Naming oxoanions

Prefixes Root Suffixes Examples
No. of O atoms
per root ate ClO4- perchlorate
root ate ClO3- chlorate
root ite ClO2- chlorite
hypo root ite ClO- hypochlorite
Table 2.6
Numerical Prefixes for Hydrates and Binary Covalent Compounds
Number Prefix Number Prefix Number Prefix
1 mono 4 tetra 8 octa
2 di 5 penta 9 nona
3 tri 6 hexa 10 deca
7 hepta
2-
Sample Problem 2.8 Determining Names and Formulas of Ionic

Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
PROBLEM: Give the systematic names or the formula or the formulas for the
names of the following compounds:
(a) Fe(ClO4)2 (b) sodium sulfite (c) Ba(OH)2 8H2O
PLAN: Note that polyatomic ions have an overall charge so when

writing a formula with more than one polyatomic unit, place the
ion in a set of parentheses.
SOLUTION: (a) ClO4- is perchlorate; iron must have a 2+ charge. This is

iron(II) perchlorate.
(b) The anion sulfite is SO32- therefore you need 2 sodiums per
sulfite. The formula is Na2SO3.
(c) Hydroxide is OH- and barium is a 2+ ion. When water is
included in the formula, we use the term “hydrate” and a prefix
which indicates the number of waters. So it is barium hydroxide
octahydrate.
2-
Sample Problem 2.9 Recognizing Incorrect Names and Formulas

of Ionic Compounds
PROBLEM: Something is wrong with the second part of each statement.

Provide the correct name or formula.
(a) Ba(C2H3O2)2 is called barium diacetate.

(b) Sodium sulfide has the formula (Na)2SO3.
(c) Iron(II) sulfate has the formula Fe2(SO4)3.
(d) Cesium carbonate has the formula Cs2(CO3).
SOLUTION: (a) Barium is always a +2 ion and acetate is -1. The “di-” is
unnecessary.
(b) An ion of a single element does not need parentheses.
Sulfide is S2-, not SO32-. The correct formula is Na2S.
(c) Since sulfate has a 2- charge, only 1 Fe2+ is needed. The
formula should be FeSO4.
(d) The parentheses are unnecessary. The correct formula is
Cs2CO3.
2-
Naming Acids
1) Binary acids solutions form when certain gaseous compounds

dissolve in water.
For example, when gaseous hydrogen chloride(HCl) dissolves in
water, it forms a solution called hydrochloric acid. Prefix hydro- +
anion nonmetal root + suffix -ic + the word acid - hydrochloric acid
2) Oxoacid names are similar to those of the oxoanions, except for

two suffix changes:
Anion “-ate” suffix becomes an “-ic” suffix in the acid. Anion “-ite”
suffix becomes an “-ous” suffix in the acid.
The oxoanion prefixes “hypo-” and “per-” are retained. Thus, BrO4-
is perbromate, and HBrO4 is perbromic acid; IO2- is iodite, and
HIO2 is iodous acid.
2-
Sample Problem 2.10 Determining Names and Formulas of Anions

and Acids
PROBLEM: Name the following anions and give the names and formulas of
the acids derived from them:
(a) Br - (b) IO3 - (c) CN - (d) SO4 2- (e) NO2 -
SOLUTION:
(a) The anion is bromide; the acid is hydrobromic acid, HBr.
(b) The anion is iodate; the acid is iodic acid, HIO3.
(c) The anion is cyanide; the acid is hydrocyanic acid, HCN.
(d) The anion is sulfate; the acid is sulfuric acid, H2SO4.
(e) The anion is nitrite; the acid is nitrous acid, HNO2.
2-
Sample Problem 2.11 Determining Names and Formulas of Binary

Covalent Compounds
PROBLEM: (a) What is the formula of carbon disulfide?
(b) What is the name of PCl5?
(c) Give the name and formula of the compound whose

molecules each consist of two N atoms and four O atoms.
SOLUTION: (a) Carbon is C, sulfide is sulfur S and di-means 2 - CS2.
(b) P is phosphorous, Cl is chloride, the prefix for 5 is penta-.

Phosphorous pentachloride.
(c) N is nitrogen and is in a lower group number than O (oxygen).

Therefore the formula is N2O4 - dinitrogen tetraoxide.
2-
Sample Problem 2.12 Recognizing Incorrect Names and Formulas

of Binary Covalent Compounds
PROBLEM: Explain what is wrong with the name of formula in the second
part of each statement and correct it:
(a) SF4 is monosulfur pentafluoride.
(b) Dichlorine heptaoxide is Cl2O6.
(c) N2O3 is dinitrotrioxide.
SOLUTION: (a) The prefix mono- is not needed for one atom; the prefix for
four is tetra-. So the name is sulfur tetrafluoride.
(b) Hepta- means 7; the formula should be Cl2O7.
(c) The first element is given its elemental name so this is

dinitrogen trioxide.
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Sample Problem 2.13 Calculating the Molecular Mass of a Compound
PROBLEM: Using the data in the periodic table, calculate the molecular (or
formula) mass of the following compounds:
(a) tetraphosphorous trisulfide (b) ammonium nitrate
PLAN: Write the formula and then multiply the number of atoms(in the
subscript) by the respective atomic masses. Add the masses for
the compound.
SOLUTION:
(a) P4S3 (b) NH4NO3
molecular = (4xatomic mass of P)
molecular = (2xatomic mass of N)
mass
+ (3xatomic mass of S) mass
+ (4xatomic mass of H)
= (4x30.97amu) + (3x32.07amu) + (3xatomic mass of O)
= (2x14.01amu)+ (4x1.008amu) +
= 220.09amu
(3x16.00amu)
= 80.05amu
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Sample Problem 2.14 Determining Formulas and Names from Molecular

Depictions
PROBLEM: Each box contains a representation of a binary compound.
Determine its formula, name, and molecular (formula) mass.
(a) (b)
SOLUTION:
(a) There is 1 sodium (brown) for every fluorine (green), so the
formula is NaF.
formula mass = (1x atomic mass of Na) + (1x atomic mass of F)
= 22.99 amu + 19.00 amu = 41.99 amu
(b) There are 3 fluorines (green) for every nitrogen (blue), so the
formula is NF3.
molecular mass = (3x atomic mass of F) + (1x atomic mass of N)
= (3x 19.00 amu) + 14.01 amu = 71.01 amu
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Figure 2.19 The distinction between mixtures and compounds.
Fe
Physically mixed therefore can be Allowed to react chemically

separated by physical means; in therefore cannot be separated by
this case by a magnet. physical means.
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Mixtures
Heterogeneous mixtures : has one or more visible boundaries

between the components.
Homogeneous mixtures : has no visible boundaries because the

components are mixed as individual atoms, ions, and molecules.
Solutions : A homogeneous mixture is also called a solution.

Solutions in water are called aqueous solutions, and are very
important in chemistry. Although we normally think of solutions as
liquids, they can exist in all three physical states.
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Definitions for Components of Matter

Element - the simplest type of substance with unique physical and

Definitions for Components of Matter

Mixture - a group of two or more

• Present the laws of chemical changes. These

laws of chemical changes

• a. Law of Conservation of Mass

Law of Conservation of Mass:

• In a chemical reaction, no change in mass

Law of Conservation of Mass:

Law of Conservation of Mass:

• Antoine Lavoisier, a brilliant

• He weighed the system, and then subjected it

Law of Mass Conservation:

The total mass of substances does not change during a chemical

reactant 1 + reactant 2 product

total mass = total mass

calcium oxide + carbon dioxide calcium carbonate

CaO + CO2 CaCO

• a. How many grams of water will be formed if

• a. How many grams of water will be formed if

b. 5.58 g iron reacted with 3.21 g sulfur. How

c. Magnesium burns in air to form magnesium

When 2.43 g magnesium was burned, 4.03 g

• d. Ammonia is produced by the reaction of

• How many grams of nitrogen combined with

Law of Definite Proportion:

• A compound always contains the same

• If water samples coming from different

• Illustrate the application of this law using the

• b. Magnesium burns brightly in air and reacts with

• d. Ask them to complete the third column by

Law of Definite (or Constant) Composition

Analysis by Mass Mass Fraction Percent by Mass

20.0 g 1.00 part by mass 100% by mass

Solve the following problems:

• a. In the first problem given earlier, it was

Sample Problem 2.1 Calculating the Mass of an Element in a Compound

PROBLEM: Pitchblende is the most commercially important compound of

Sample Problem 2.1 Calculating the Mass of an Element in a Compound

PROBLEM: Pitchblende is the most commercially important compound of

Law of Multiple Proportions:

• If two elements can combine to form more

a. In carbon monoxide, 1.00 g carbon combines

Illustrate the application of this law using the

• Remind them that laws are derived from

Law of Multiple Proportions:

Law of Multiple Proportions:

• Dalton’s Atomic Theory, proposed by John

• 1. Elements are made up of very small

• 2. All the atoms of an element are identical in

• 3. Compounds are composed of atoms of

• 4. During a chemical reaction, atoms

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into

3. Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other

4. Compounds result from the chemical combination of

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Atoms cannot be created or destroyed postulate 1

or converted into other types of atoms. postulate 2

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Atoms are combined in compounds in postulate 3