Ancient Greek Philosophers

• Pythagoras (c. 570 - c. 495 BC) — Universe is mathematical;

mathematics as the best way to express truth about the Universe;
Sun, moon and Earth are spherical; placed Earth as the center of the
Universe.
• Plato (c. 427 - c. 347 BC) — attainment of perfection as absence of
change; mathematical symmetries to demonstrate perfect shapes
(sphere and circle); celestial spheres being crystalline and contains
the moon, the Sun and the stars; explaining the shadows — read on
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave and the Allegory of the Divided Line — as
his description or framework on how to look at the Universe, in
particular that the daily and annual patterns of the sky must have a
greater reality besides its appearance.
• Eudoxus (of Cnidus, 408 - 355 BC) — followed previous models of the
universe but added auxiliary spheres to provide appropriate tilt to the
planets’ path.
• Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) — two-domain system with terrestrial domain
containing four elements that tries to attain perfection by being in their
natural location relative to the center of the Universe: the center of the
Earth. He was a learner of Plato.
 Two-domain view of the Universe
Domain Elements Motion

Terrestrial domain fire alteration

air natural motion
water violent motion
earth

Celestial domain ether perfect motion: circular and constant

speed
• Diurnal motion of the sky — the appearance that the objects in the sky
moves relative to the Earth’s local horizon (celestial objects: moon, Sun,
stars, planets; there were only five known planets: Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn) as observed for one whole day at the same location on
Earth.
• Annual motion of the sky — the appearance that objects in the sky moves
relative to the background stars as observed at the same time of the day
and at the same location on Earth.
Development of the Greek models of the
Universe
• 1. The regularity of the diurnal and annual motions of the sky can be
explained by the basic model of Plato: spherical crystalline shells
containing the Sun, Moon, and the five planets (Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn). The stars are fixed in the outermost
crystalline sphere that rotates annually. You may add that Plato is able
to that the Platonic solids can be used as a rational for the proper
sequence of the planets, but this is not necessary. A sample slide is
shown below.
2. Since the planets wander even more than previously only roughly
observed, a need for more refined separate spheres to mechanically
and visually produce them is required. This is answered by the model of
Eudoxus of Cnidus. A sample slide is below. The 27 auxiliary spheres are
needed to produced the appearance that planets deviate from each
other’s path.
3. Aristotle improved on the model like that of Eudoxus to make it
more consistent with his theory of motion — his theory of causes.
Aristotle argued that the motion of the celestial objects can be traced
to a Prime Mover that because of its basic movement, all other
crystalline spheres move accordingly. This model requires a geometric
and mathematical feat so as to fix the gear ratio of the spheres as well
as the correct tilts of their axes relative to each other to produce the
same appearance! A sample slide is shown here.
4. The appearance of the retrograde motion necessitates the addition
of more mechanisms called “devices” to produce the visual motion of
the planets. Due to complications, the Aristotelian Prime Mover is
ignored and instead other philosophers concentrated on the
production of retrograde motion of all planets using “devices”. Among
the devices, one can specifically focus on the combination of deferent
and the epicycles. These devices, though complicates the original
model, is most practically accurate during that era. The following
sample slides shows the complicated model and the operation of the
devices in producing the apparent retrograde motion of the planets.
5. Ptolemy’s model can be subsequently improved (as it was actually
done) by adding more epicycles with smaller radius. Here’s a sketch of
how the devices result to the apparent retrograde motion
[http://www.mysearch.org.uk/website1/html/17.Ptolemy.html].
Aristotelian
Mechanics
What were the early ideas of Greek
philosophers regarding motion?

How do objects move?

How do moving objects stop from

moving?
 Ancient Greeks believed that the cosmos or
the universe was divided into two realms-
celestial and terrestrial.
The motion of the objects in the celestial
realm was perfect and circular. They all revolved
around Earth. On the other hand, the motion in
the terrestrial realm was unstable and imperfect,
and there should be a cause for motion.
Types of Terrestrial Motion
Natural Motion
Ancient Greek philosophers believed that all
things in the terrestrial realm were made out of
the four elements- air, earth, fire and water.
Their natural motion is to go back to their
natural state depending on the element that
composed them. Their motion was either
upward or downward.
 The natural state of objects made of earth was in the
geosphere. For example, when a rock, an object made of the
element earth, was thrown upward, its tendency was to go
back to its natural state. Therefore, it would move downward,
towards the Earth’s center.
On the other hand, the natural state of objects made of
air was in the atmosphere. For example, the smoke from a
flame would move upward to go back to its natural state.
Similarly, the natural state of objects made of water was
in the hydrosphere while those made of fire was in the
thermosphere.
 Voluntary Motion

According to Aristotle, voluntary motion was

an innate characteristic of humans and animals.
The cause of their motion was in themselves
because they have the will to move.
Involuntary Motion
Involuntary motion was the characteristic
motion of plants and minerals. They could not
move because they do not have the will to do
so. They could only move due to mechanical
forces.
Key Points
The three types of terrestrial motion according to the
Aristotelian mechanics are:
• natural motion where objects tend to go back to their
natural state, which is based on the element that composes
the;
• voluntary motion of humans and animals due to their
innate will to move; and
• involuntary motion of minerals and plants due to
mechanical forces.
1.Which of the following are the two realms
that make up the cosmos according to
ancient Greeks?
A. Terrestrial and natural
B. Celestial and natural
C. Natural and unnatural
D. Terrestrial and celestial
2. Which of the following describes the
motion of the objects in the celestial realm
according to Greek philosophers?
A. Perfect and circular
B. Perfect and rectilinear
C. Unstable and circular
D. Unstable and rectilinear
3. Which of the following describes the
motion of the objects in the terrestrial
realm?
A. Prefect
B. Circular
C. Unstable
D. Rectilinear
4. Which of the following are the types of terrestrial motion
according to Aristotelian mechanics?

I. Natural III. Involuntary

II. Voluntary IV. Cosmological

A. I only
B. II only
C. II and IV
D. I, II and III
5. Which of the following best explains why
raindrops fall according to Aristotelian mechanics?
A. Raindrops fall due to the gravitational attraction
of the Earth.
B. The involuntary motion of raindrops is to fall.
C. The atmosphere can no longer hold the
raindrops.
D.The natural state of the rain is to go to the
hydrosphere.
6. According to the Aristotelian mechanics, which
of the following best describes the condition that
will allow terrestrial objects to move?
A. There should be a cause of movement.
B. The celestial bodies should be aligned perfectly.
C. Their natural state is to move towards the
ground.
D.They should be composed mainly of Earth
element.
7. Which of the following best explains why animals
move?
A. Their natural state is to move towards Earth’s
center.
B. The gravitational attraction of Earth forces them to
move.
C. Their movements are dictated by the movement of
celestial bodies.
D. They voluntarily move due to their innate will to
do so.
8. Which of the following best explains why
plants are considered to have involuntary
motion?
A.It is their natural state not to move.
B. They do not have the will to move.
C. The gravity of the Earth stops them from
moving.
D.The celestial bodies stop them from moving.
9. Which of the following best describes the
condition that will allow plants to move?
A. There should be mechanical forces applied to
them.
B. There should be celestial forces applied to
them.
C. The Sun should be visible to give them energy.
D. Plants can move on their own.
10. When terrestrial objects are unstable, they tend to go
back to their natural state. Find the correct matches for the
natural state of the following:
A. Geosphere:river; Hydrosphere:clay pot;
Atmosphere:flame;Thermosphere:carbon dioxide
B. Geosphere:clay pot; Hydrosphere:river;
Atmosphere:carbon dioxide; Thermoshere:flame
C. Geosphere:carbon dioxide; Hydrosphere:clay pot;
Atmosphere:flame; Thermosphere:river
D. Geosphere:river; Hydrosphere:flame; Atmosphere:clay
pot; Thermosphere:carbon dioxide
Diurnal Motion, Annual
Motion and Precession
of the Equinoxes
How do celestial bodies
move in the celestial
sphere?
Diurnal Motion
- the apparent daily revolution of the celestial sphere around the
celestial poles as a direct effect of the Earth’s rotation on its axis.
- it refers to the apparent movement of stars and other celestial
bodies around Earth. The circular path that the celestial bodies take to
complete the diurnal motion is called diurnal circle.
- the apparent motion of celestial bodies viewed from Earth is east to
west.
- If you observed the night sky, the stars seem to move in a counter-
clockwise direction (from east to west) with respect to Polaris or North Star.
- Similarly, the apparent daily motion of the sun, which is the closest
star to Earth, is counter-clockwise.
- You can observe that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
 Some stars, called circumpolar stars, never seem to go away
from the horizon, or never set or rise. The closer you get to the
poles, the larger the circle of circumpolar stars is.
On the other hand, the nearer you get to the equator, the circle
of circumpolar stars decreases until it vanishes at the celestial poles.
Annual Motion
- it is the apparent yearly movement of the stars as observed
from Earth as a direct effect of the Earth’s revolution around the
sun.
- the sun revolves 360 degrees a year around a path on the
celestial sphere called the ecliptic. The sun moves eastward with
respect to the stars on the celestial sphere.
- it can be observed that the sun’s altitude changes with
season.
- its altitude is at maximum during summer solstice and at
minimum during winter solstice.
- Also, sunrise and sunset points in the horizon changes with
season.
 As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, different stars
and constellations appear on the horizon throughout the
year. These are known as the constellations of the Zodiac.
Precession of the Equinoxes
- As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, it intersects
the celestial equator twice during a year at two points.
These points are called the equinoxes: vernal and
autumnal.
- During an equinox, the length of daytime is almost
equal to the length of nighttime.
- Vernal or spring equinox happens every March 20
while autumnal equinox occurs every September 22.
- The gravitational force of the sun and the moon on
Earth causes the cyclic precession or “wobbling” of the
Earth’s axis of rotation.
 Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent
motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic as Earth
‘wobbles’ and this motion happens about every 26 000
years.
At present, Earth’s North Pole points to Polaris.
However, it will eventually point to another star, Vega,
because of precession.
Explore!
Different stars and constellations
appear on the horizon throughout the year.
These are known as the constellations of
the Zodiac. Research what these
constellations of the Zodiac are and how
they move as the Earth wobbles.
What do you think?
How did astronomers know
that the Earth is spherical?
Key Points
• Diurnal motion is the apparent daily motion of
stars, including the Sun as seen from the Earth due
to the Earth’s rotation.
• Annual motion is the apparent yearly motion of
stars, including the Sun as seen from the Earth due
to the Earth’s revolution around the Sun.
• Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent
motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic as the
Earth wobbles.
1.Which of the following refers to the
surface where stars appear to be
attached?
A. Ecliptic
B. Celestial poles
C. Celestial sphere
D. Diurnal circle
2. Which of the following is the path
that the stars take in completing
diurnal motion?
A. Celestial sphere
B. Ecliptic
C. Diurnal circle
D. Celestial poles
3. Which of the following is the path taken
by the sun as it moves around the celestial
sphere?
A. Diurnal circle
B. Celestial sphere
C. Celestial poles
D. Ecliptic
4. Which of the following is a consequence
of the Earth’s rotation around its axis?
A. The constellations change their position
with season.
B. The equinoxes wobble.
C. The sun rises in the east and sets in the
west.
D. The North Star changes from Polaris to
Vega.
5. What happens to the circumpolar
stars as you get closer to the poles?
A. Increases
B. Decreases
C. Remains the same
D. Changes position
6. During which time is the sun’s
altitude at its maximum?
A. Summer solstice
B. Winter solstice
C. Autumnal equinox
D. Vernal equinox
7. Which of the following can be observed due to the
Earth’s revolution around the Sun?
I. The sun’s altitude changes with season.
II. Circumpolar stars can be observed.
III. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
IV. Different constellations appear in the horizon
throughout the year.

A. I and II C. II and IV
B. II and III D. I and IV
8. Which of the following can be observed when the
sun intersects the celestial equator as it revolves
around the ecliptic?
A. The length of daytime is greater than the length of
night time.
B. The length of daytime is lesser than the length of
night time.
C. Solar flares are more frequent.
D. The length of daytime is equal to the length of
night time.
9. Which of the following is the driving force
that causes the Earth’s axis of rotation to
wobble?
A. Gravitational force of the Sun and moon
B. Diurnal motion
C. Annual motion
D. Precession
Categorize the following observations
or phenomena whether they are
consequences of diurnal motion, annual
motion or precession of the equinoxes.
10. Revolution of the stars around the celestial poles.
The observation of stars that never seem to rise or
set.

11. The sun’s sunrise and sunset points in the horizon

changes with season.

12. Autumnal or vernal points change every about 26

000 years.
 How the Greeks
Knew That the Earth
is Spherical
The shape of the Earth is oblate spheroid. It
has bulging equator and squeezed poles.
 Have you ever wondered
what the early philosophers
thought about the shape of
the Earth?
 - Around 500 B.C., most Greeks believed that the
Earth was round, not flat. It was Pythagoras and his
pupils who were first to propose a spherical Earth.
 - In 500 to 430 B.C., Anaxagoras further
supported Pythagoras’ proposal through his
observations of the shadows that the Earth
cast on the Moon during a lunar eclipse.
- He observed that during a lunar eclipse,
the Earth’s shadow was reflected on the
Moon’s surface. The shadow reflected was
circular.
 - Around 340 B.C., Aristotle listed several
arguments for a spherical Earth which
included the positions of the North star, the
shape of the Moon and the Sun, and the
disappearance of the ships when they sail
over the horizon.
North Star
The North Star was believed to be
at a fixed position in the sky. However,
when the Greeks traveled to places
nearer the equator, like Egypt, they
noticed that the North Star is closer to
the horizon.
The Shape of the Sun and the Moon
Aristotle argued that if the
Moon and the Sun were both
spherical, then perhaps, the
Earth was also spherical.
Disappearing Ships
- If the Earth was flat, then a ship traveling
away from an observer should become smaller
and smaller until it disappeared. However, the
Greeks observed that the ship became smaller
and then its hull disappeared first before the
sail as if it was being enveloped by the water
until it completely disappeared.
The Size of the Spherical
Earth
 - Ancient scholars tried to provide proof of a spherical
Earth and its circumference through calculations.
- Eratosthenes gave the most accurate size during their
time. While he was working at the Library of Alexandria in
Northern Egypt, he received correspondence from Syene in
Southern Egypt which stated that a vertical object did not cast
any shadow at noontime during the summer solstice.
- But this was not the case in Alexandria where, at noon
time during the summer solstice, a vertical object still casts a
shadow.
- These observations could only mean that the Sun,
during this time in Alexandria, was not directly overhead.
 - He then determined the angle the Sun made with the
vertical direction by measuring the shadow that a vertical stick
cast.
- He found out that in Alexandria, the Sun makes an angle
of 7.2° from the vertical while 0° in Syene.
- To explain the difference, he hypothesized that the light
rays coming from the sun are parallel and the Earth is curved.
- From his measurements, he computed the
circumference of the Earth to be approximately 250 000 stadia
(a stadium is a unit of measurement used to describe the size
of a typical stadium at the time), about 40 000 kilometers.
What do you think?
What could life on Earth
be like if it is not a sphere?
 Key points
The following observations led the Greeks to conclude that the
Earth is sphere:
• The Earth casts a circular shadow on the Moon during a lunar eclipse.
• The North Star has different positions depending on the location of
the observer.
• The Moon and the Sun are both spherical.
• A sailing ship becomes smaller and then its hull disappears first before
the sail as if it is being enveloped by the water until it completely
disappears.
• The angle of the Sun with the vertical direction at noon time during a
summer solstice varies from place to place.
1.Which of the following is the shape
of the Earth according to ancient
Greeks?
A. Cylinder
B. Octagon
C. Flat disc
D. Sphere
2. What is the shape of the Earth as
described by modern astronomy?
A. Ellipsoid
B. Hyperboloid
C. Oblate spheroid
D. Oblate paraboloid
3. Which of the following ancient
Greek philosophers computed for the
circumference of the Earth?
A. Anaxagoras
B. Pythagoras
C. Eratosthenes
D. Aristotle
4. According to Erastothenes’
computations what is the
circumference of the Earth?
A. 250 000 stadia
B. 500 stadia
C. 7.2 stadia
D. 40 000 stadia
5. In which of the following is 250 000
stadia equal to?
A. 40 000 kilometers
B. 40 000 meters
C. 40 000 miles
D. 40 000 inches
6. In which of the following events can the
circular shadow of the Earth be observed
most notably?
A. Solar eclipse
B. Lunar eclipse
C. Summer solstice
D. Winter solstice
7. Which of the following describes the
position of the North Star if you go farther
away from the equator?
A. Closer to the horizon
B. Farther away from the horizon
C. The north star is fixed wherever you are
on the Earth.
D. It disappears completely.
8. Which of the following can be observed of
a cruising ship if the Earth is a flat disc?
A. It will shrink then only the sail will be
visible until it completely disappears.
B. It will become bigger and bigger.
C. It will not change its size.
D. It will become smaller and smaller until it
disappears.
9. During which time did Eratosthenes
observe the shadows cast by a vertical
stick?
A. Noon time in summer solstice
B. Noon time in winter solstice
C. During a lunar eclipse
D. During a solar eclipse
10. According to Eratosthenes, which of the following explain why a
vertical stick casts a shadow in Alexandria but not in Syene?
I. The Sun is directly overhead in Syene while in Alexandria, it is
only almost directly overhead.
II. The light rays coming from the sun are parallel, and the Earth is
curved.
III. The light rays coming from the sun are curved, and the Earth is
flat.
IV. The Sun is directly overhead in Alexandria while in Syene, it is
only almost directly overhead.
A. I only C. III and IV
B. I and II D. II and IV
 How Plato’s Problem of
“Saving the Appearances”
Constrained Greek Models
of the Universe
How did Plato’s ‘saving
the appearances’
disproved the Greeks
models of the universe?
Greeks’ Notion on the Movement of
Planets
 In Greek Astronomy, the philosophers favored a broader
approach when it comes to theories on the movement of
planets.
 Greeks were able to formulate a scheme of planetary
motion based on the present observations that they
account that time.
 The two most notable principles of Greek philosophers in
describing the motion of the stars, the sun and the planets
include the theory of planetary motion and the apparent
motion of the planets.
Theory of planetary motion
- assumed that the planets
must move ‘perfectly’ in a
circular motion.
Apparent motion of the planets
- were based on the uniformity of their behavior
as move on their orbits, without considering the
irregularities in their movement.
- for example, in the celestial sphere, the stars
appear to rotate uniformly, from east to west, until
they return back to their starting point.
- from these ideas, Plato posed an important
question to his students that revolved in the two
main principles of the Greek philosophers.
• Before he posed his question, Plato first cited
his observations about the stars and the planets.
•He explained that the stars appear to move
around the earth in a ‘perfect’ path. However,
he described that some of the ‘stars’ appear to
‘wander’ across the sky, giving irregular figures
throughout the year.
•He accounted the ‘wandering stars’ as planets
and that they move in a uniform and orderly
manner in circles or in combinations of circles.
•Finally, he asked his students on how can they
explain all these observations about the
planetary motion and ‘save the appearances’
(in today’s term, ‘fit the observations with the
data’).
•He posed the question because the
observations about the planetary motion and
the apparent motions of the planets did not
seem to coincide with each other.
•Given that the planets move in a perfect path or
in a uniform circular motion, there were still
apparent irregular motions of the planets or
planets that still ‘wander’ across the sky.
 Plato’s question was not
meant for him to answer
but instead, it became the
goal of astronomers and
philosophers.
The Aristotelian System
• Aristotle believed that all matter consists of a mixture of 4
elements: earth, water, air and fire.
• Each of these elements has a tendency to reach its ‘natural
place’.
• These elements are only present in terrestrial objects.
• In the case of the celestial bodies, a 5th element called
aether, was the reason why the heavens were created. The
aether has its own motion based on its nature: pure and
absolute.
• Its motion has no end and no beginning; thus, its natural
place is a circular motion.
 Based on this philosophy, Aristotle devised a
system to explain the uniform and ordered
movement of the celestial bodies.
In his system, the stars were embedded
outside the largest sphere where the “prime
mover” is found.
The prime mover keeps the stars moving in a
constant motion, causing a friction to the smaller
spheres of the outer planets and the spheres
where the sun and the inner planets were located.
The Heliocentric Theory
•It was Aristarchus of Samus who first suggested
a system that puts the sun at the center of the
universe, where the moon, the earth and 5
planets, revolved around the sun in different
sizes of orbits at different speeds.
•However, there were serious flaws that the
ancient people saw in his system.
First,
Aristarchus violated their philosophical
doctrines: the Earth is immobile and its
natural place is at the center of the
universe, and the position of the sun is
differentiated from the celestial bodies.
Second,
he was not able to provide
mathematical computations and
predictions of the celestial paths.
Finally,
the Greek thinkers refuted Aristarchus
idea by creative reasoning.
 They posed a scenario that if the earth moves around the
sun, the large orbit of the earth will carry itself closer or farther to
a certain fixed star in the celestial sphere.
Thus, the angle at which the star is viewed will be different
with the different points as observed in the earth annually (known
today as the annual parallax).
The Modified Geocentric Model
• Apollonius, Hipparchus and an influential
astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy modified the
geocentric theory to answer the question posed by
Plato that had not been answered by the previous
geocentric theory. This modified theory states that:
1. The celestial bodies move in an eccentric path
if these bodies do not move around in a uniform
circular motion around the stationary earth.
2. The celestial bodies, such as the sun or a
certain planet, have two uniform circular
motions, as depicted with a small circle
(epicycle) and a larger circle (deferent) which
take different speeds and direction. The reversal
in the direction of motion is called retrograde
motion. During this motion, the planets appear
brighter because it is closer to the earth.
The Ptolemaic System
• Of all the theories, systems and ideas that had been laid
down to answer Plato’s question, Claudius Ptolemy was
the only one who was able to answer Plato’s question.
• He still made a few modifications of the modified
geocentric theory and was able to explain about the
planetary motion and the apparent motion of the planets.
• This theory gave an accurate description of what could be
observed given the instruments they use and was based on
the Greek’s philosophical and physical doctrine regarding
nature and the celestial bodies.
Key Points
• The two most notable principles of Greek philosophers in describing the
motion of the stars, sun and planets include the theory of planetary motion
and the apparent motion of the planets.
• From these ideas, Plato posed an important question to his students that
revolved in the two main principles of the Greek philosophers.
• He explained that the stars, given that they are unchanging bodies, appear to
move around the earth in a perfect path.
• He described that some of the ‘stars’ appear to wander across the sky, giving
irregular figures throughout the year. He accounted them as planets and
defined that these planets move in a uniform and orderly manner in circles or
combination of circles.
• He asked his students on how can they explain all these observations in the
planetary motion and ‘save the appearances’ (in today’s term, ‘fit the data’).
 Astronomical
Phenomena Known to
Astronomers before
the Advent of
Telescopes
 Which planets are easily seen in the sky
without the aid of telescopes?
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn
are easily seen in the sky without the aid of
telescopes. These planets can be easily
confused with stars and are only seen at
specific times of the day. The best time to
look for these planets would be before
sunrise and after sunset.
 Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations used a primitive version of a
sundial, called gnomon, in systematically observing the motion of the sun.
By looking at the shadows that the gnomon casts, they were able to
observe that the sun rises in the eastern part of the sky, reaches its highest
point in midday and sets in the western part of the sky.
 Also, they recorded that the points where the sun
rises and sets on the horizon varies over a year and
these variations happen periodically. They observed
that these variations are related to weather and so
concluded that seasonal changes in climate happen
during a course of one year.
Phases of the Moon
Ancient people have observed that the moon changes its path
and its appearance within a period of 29.5 days. They observed that
the moon changes its appearance from thin semi-circular disk to full
circular disk. These phases of the moon is the basis of ancient
calendars.
 Lunar Eclipse
Besides their observation in the different phases of the moon, they
also noticed that there are times when the moon or part of it seemed to be
covered by a shadow for a brief moment. A lunar eclipse occurs when the
Earth casts its shadow on the moon when the Earth is between the Sun and
the Moon.
A phenomenon such as this is known as a lunar eclipse wherein the
moon changes into a dark or blood red color.
Solar Eclipse
Aside from lunar eclipse, the occurrence of a solar eclipse was also
observed. Solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is in between the Sun and
the Earth and the moon partially or completely blocks out the sun.
 The motion of the Stars
It was also observed that the stars appear to
be attached to a celestial sphere that rotates
around an axis in one day. This axis interacts the
celestial sphere at a point in the northern sky and
is presently close to the northern sky and is
presently close to the northern star, Polaris. Also,
the constellations’ positions in the night sky vary
depending on the time of the year.
Visibility of Planets
Astronomers have discovered that Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn are planets because
they have noticed that the stars are in a fixed position
with respect to each other (like how constellations are
always grouped). But there are very bright stars that
change positions periodically. These “stars” do not
belong to any group of constellations in the sky. Thus,
they are called “wanderers” or planets in Greek
terms.
Key Points
Even before the advent of the telescopes, ancient
astronomers were able to observe the:
• Rising and setting of the Sun in the east and the west,
respectively,
• Point where the Sun rises and sets in the horizon varies in a year,
• Phases of the moon,
• Lunar eclipse,
• Solar eclipse,
• Daily and annual motion of the stars, and
• Planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn
 Models of Astronomical
Phenomena: Copernican,
Ptolemaic and Tychonic
In Modern Science, what
are the members of the
present known Solar
System?
 Today, the Solar System consists of 8
planets namely Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. All these
planets revolve around a massive ball of
helium and hydrogen known as the Sun.
There are other bodies within the Solar
System such as moons that revolve around
the planets, asteroids and planetoids.
Ptolemaic Model
The Ptolemaic model known as the Geocentric
model, was developed by an Egyptian astronomer
Claudius Ptolemy. It came from the Greek words geo
meaning Earth and centric meaning center. This model
explains that the Earth is the center of the universe
and everything else revolves around it. Each planet
moves in a circular path called epicycle which moves
around a larger circular path called deferent. The
moon revolves around the Earth followed by the other
planets.
 Basic structure of geocentric model:

Belief in Ptolemy’s
geocentric model
lasted until the
16th century.

Cosmographia, first published 1524

 Geocentric ideas
• The Earth is still, motionless, and at the center of the Universe

• Celestial bodies move in perfect circles at uniform speeds

• Stars were set in a rotating sphere that turned E to W once a day

• Planets, moon, sun also set in separate spheres that moved slower
 Copernican Model
This is also known as the Heliocentric model
developed by a Polish mathematician Nicolaus
Copernicus. It came from the Greek words helios
meaning sun and centric meaning center. This model
explains that the center of the universe is the Sun and
that the majority of the planets revolve around it. Also,
the epicycle moves in an elliptical motion not circular.
The moon revolves around both the Earth and the Sun
while Earth revolves around the Sun.
Sun Centered
• The distinction between the Solar System
and the Universe was not clear until
modern times
• Polish priest –
astronomer Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473 –
1543) eventually
decided
to reject the
geocentric model
 Heliocentric
• Heliocentric – Sun centered universe

Sun is at center.
Earth revolves around Sun.
Earth rotates around axis.
Copernicus
 Galileo Galilei
Proves Copernicus’ Hypothesis
• Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was a pivotal figure in the
development of modern astronomy. He proved the Copernican
hypothesis.
• He also invented the telescope.
Galileo
• The sun is the center (heliocentric) of our solar
system
• Our solar system is a part of a larger universe
• Using a new invention, the
telescope, Galileo was able
to view parts of our Solar
System in motion
What could Galileo see?
• New stars (Milky Way made up of stars)
• Mountains and valleys on the moon
• Four moons orbiting Jupiter (now called Galilean
moons)
• Phases of Venus
• Sunspots (rotating around the sun about once a
month)
• The rings of Saturn
• Planets are disks, not pinpoints of light like the stars
 Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
• Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer who lived at about
the same time as Galileo.
• He showed mathematically that Copernicus' idea of a sun-
centered system worked well if uniform circular motion was
replaced with uneven (but predictable) motion along off-
center ellipses.
 Modern thought begins to take hold
• Other scientists began to look and explain how the
universe worked
• Isaac Newton (1642-1727) proposed that gravity is the
main source that holds our solar system together.
• The sun's gravitational pull holds the Earth and other planets
in their orbits.
• Things on or near the Earth are pulled toward it by the Earth's
gravity.
Tychonic Model
This model was developed by a Danish astronomer
Tycho Brahe. It was the combination of Ptolemaic and
Copernican models. This explains that the planets of the
Solar System revolve around the Sun but the Earth is the
center of the universe. The Sun, due to its massive size,
attracts the remaining planets and drags them along its
revolution around the Earth- like metals attracted to a
magnet!
Simply put, the Sun revolves around the Earth and the
planets revolve around the Sun.
So what have we learned?
Before modern thought, the universe was seen in 2 ways
1. Geocentric: Ptolemy's Earth-centered Universe
2. Heliocentric: Copernicus’ and Galileo’s Sun Centered Universe
3. Kepler: explained the orbits of planets
4. Newton: explained gravity is the glue that hold the solar system
together
5. 20th century: newer ideas would change the way we thought about
gravity, space, and time
Explore!
Observe the night sky for a week.
What do you notice at the stars? Why
do they change position every night?
Also, why do you think the night sky
changes with the seasons?
Try it!
Get a tablespoon of sand, a piece of paper
and a magnet. Place the sand on top of the
paper and the magnet at the bottom of the
paper. Move the magnet at any direction. What
do you notice in the sand? Why do you think
the sand moved in the same direction the
magnet did? How will you relate it to our topic
for today?
Key Points
 Ptolemaic model – The Earth is at the center of
the universe and everything in the universe
revolves around the Earth.
 Copernican model – The Sun is at the center of
the universe and majority of the bodies in the
universe revolves around the Sun.
 Tychonic model – The Earth is at the center of the
universe. The sun revolves around the Earth and all
the other planets revolve around the Sun.
The Models of The Universe:
Eudoxus, Aristotle,
Aristarchus, Ptolemy and
Copernicus
Throughout history we have looked at the
stars and wondered about the universe
What are the models of the
universe proposed by
different philosophers?
Eudoxus’ Model
Eudoxus of Cnidus, a Greek astronomer
and mathematician, was the first to propose
a model of the universe based on geometry.
His model composed of 27 concentric
spheres with Earth as the center. The Sun,
the moon, the planets and the fixed stars
have spheres. Each sphere is attached to a
larger sphere through a pole.
 The rotation of the spheres on their poles once
every 24 hours accounts for the daily rotation of the
heavens. It is unclear whether Eudoxus regarded
these spheres as physical entities or just
mathematical constructions.
Aristotle’s Model
Aristotle, a Greek philosophers and
astronomer, considered the model proposed by
Eudoxus, but he considered these spheres as
physical entities. He thought that these spheres
were filled with the divine and eternal “ether”
that caused the spheres to move. He introduced
the Prime Mover, as the cause of the
movement of the spheres.
 His model composed of 56 spheres that guided the motion of
the Sun, the Moon, and five known planets. As the spheres move,
they maintained the same distance from the Earth. Also, they
moved at constant speeds.
 Aristarchus’ Model
Aristarchus of Samos, a Greek astronomer and
mathematician, was the first to hypothesize that the
Sun is the center of the universe.
He visualized that the Moon orbits around a
spherical Earth which then revolves around the Sun.
He believed that the stars are very far away from
the Earth as evidenced by the absence of stellar
parallax- that is, the stars do not change positions
relative to each other as the Earth revolves around
the Sun.
 Through geometrical models and mathematical computations, he
concluded that the Sun is 20 times farther from the Earth than the Moon is
to the Earth; the Earth is about three times larger than the Moon; and the
Sun is 20 times larger than the Moon.
He also reasoned out that smaller spheres orbit around larger ones.
Thus, the Moon orbits around the Earth and the Earth orbits around the
Sun.
Ptolemy’s Model
The Sun, Moon, stars and planets were believed
to move in a uniform circular motion- the “perfect”
motion assigned to celestial bodies by the ancient
Greeks. However, observations showed otherwise.
The paths of the celestial bodies are not circular,
and they vary in distances. Babylonians even showed
that some planets exhibit a retrograde motion- a
motion opposite to that of other planets.
 To explain “imperfect motions” of heavenly
bodies, Claudius Ptolemy, a Greco-Egyptian
astronomer and mathematician, proposed his
own geocentric (Earth-centered) model of the
universe.
He accounted for the apparent motions of
the planets around the Earth by assuming that
each planet moved around a sphere called an
epicycle. The center of the epicycle then moved
on a larger sphere called a deferent.
1. A planet moves counter-clockwise around
the epicycle.
2. The epicycle’s center also moves counter-
clockwise around the center of the deferent
(indicated by the + sign in the image).
3. The center of the epicycle moves around
the equant with a uniform speed.
4. The Earth is not exactly at the center of the
deferent, or it is eccentric (off the center).
This explains why, as observed from the
Earth, the Sun or a planet moves slowest
when it is farthest from the Earth and moves
fastest when it is nearest the Earth.
4. The motion of the planet can be described
by points 1-7 in the figure below. At point 4,
the planet moves in a retrograde (clockwise)
direction. The planet is brightest at this point
because it is closest to the Earth.
The combination of small
and large circles
produces “loop-the-
loop” motion.
 Ptolemy’s model: did not fit data
OCCAM’S RAZOR
During the Middle Ages,
entia non sunt
Ptolemy’s model had to multiplicanda
be fiddled with – more praeter necessitatem
epicycles were added.
entities should not be
multiplied beyond
The model was needlessly necessity
complicated because it
was based on erroneous William of Occam (c. 1285–1347 )
assumptions.
Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model for
the universe.
Mikolaj Kopernik
(1473-1543)
Poland

Stated that Sun, not

Earth, was at the
center of the
universe.
Copernicus’ Model
In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus, a
Renaissance mathematician and astronomer
born in Poland, ended the geocentric
astronomy era by publishing his work On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
wherein he explained that the Sun, not
Earth, is the center of the universe.
 In his work, he reiterated the ancient Greek concept
that the motion of spherical heavenly bodies is uniform,
eternal and circular.
He then reasoned that because Earth is spherical,
then its motion is circular. He added that the Earth has
three different motions: daily rotation on its axis, yearly
motion around the Sun, and the precession, or change in
orientation, of its axis every 26 000 years.
He also proposed that the fixed stars are immovable.
Their apparent movement is a consequence of the Earth’s
rotation. These stars are at immeasurable distances from
the Earth, so there is no observable parallax.
 By placing the Sun at the center of the universe and the
orbits of Mercury and Venus in between the Sun and the Earth,
Copernicus’ model was able to account for the changes in the
appearances of these planets and their retrograde motions. The
need for epicycles in explaining motions was eliminated.
 Heliocentric model of Copernicus met
with considerable (scientific) resistance.
Why? It implies that distance from Sun to stars
is much greater than distance from Sun to
Earth:
• Stars do not vary much in brightness over the
course of a year.
• Stars do not show a large parallax over the
course of a year.
Radical aspects of Copernican model:
• Earth is not at center.
• Earth is moving.
• Earth is just another planet.
• Space is big – REALLY big.

Conservative aspects of Copernican model:

• Uniform Circular Motion assumed.
• Epicycles still required.
 Try it!
Parallax is the effect wherein an object’s
position appears to change when viewed by an
observer from different positions. You can
demonstrate this by looking at your forefinger at
arm’s length. Cover your left eye and look at
your forefinger. Then transfer the cover on your
right eye and observe the position of your
forefinger. What did you observe?
Key Points
• Eudoxus’, Aristotle’s, and Ptolemy’s models have the Earth as
the center of the universe while Aristarchus’ and Copernicus’
models have the Sun as the center.
• Eudoxus’ model has 27 concentric spheres for the Sun, Moon,
planets, and the stars whose common center is the Earth.
• Aristotle’s model of the universe is composed of 56 spheres
guiding the motion of Sun, Moon and the five known planets.
• Aristarchus said that smaller celestial bodies must orbit the
larger ones and since the Sun is much larger than the Earth,
then the Earth must orbit around the Sun.
• Ptolemaic model introduced the concepts of
epicycle, deferent and equant to explain the
observed “imperfect” motions of the planets.
• Copernicus’ model recognized that the Earth
rotates on its axis, revolves around the Sun, and
undergoes precession.
Test Questions
1. How many concentric spheres accommodate
the Sun, Moon, planets and stars in Eudoxus’
model?
A. 37
B. 46
C. 56
D. 27
2. According to Aristotle, which of the
following fills the spheres and causes them
to move?
A. Ether
B. Water
C. Wind
D. Fire
3. Who was the first to propose a
Sun-centered model of the
universe?
A. Copernicus
B. Ptolemy
C. Aristarchus
D. Aristotle
4. Which of the following best explains why there is
no observed stellar parallax according to Aristarchus
and Copernicus?
A. The Sun is at an immeasurable distance from the
Earth.
B. The stars are at an immeasurable distance from
the Earth.
C. The planets are at an immeasurable distance from
the Earth.
D. The stars are at a measurable distance from the
Earth.
5. Which of the following best describes
Aristarchus’ reasoning why the Sun is the center
of the universe?
A.Smaller spheres should orbit around the larger
ones.
B. Larger spheres should orbit around the smaller
ones.
C. There is no observed stellar parallax.
D.There is an observed stellar parallax.
6. In the image below, which letter represents the deferent
according to the Ptolemaic system?

A. C
B. A
C. B
D. D
7. In the image below, which of the following best describes the part labeled
as B according to the Ptolemaic system?
A. It is the path of the planet as it revolves
around the Sun.
B. It is the path of the Earth as it revolves
around the Sun.
C. It is the path of the Earth as it revolves
around the planet.
D. It is the path of the planet as it revolves
around the Earth.
8. According to the Ptolemaic system, which of the following
best explains why planets sometimes move in a retrograde
motion?
A. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the
epicycle.
B. It is the result of a planet’s simultaneous movement
around the epicycle and the deferent.
C. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the
deferent.
D. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the Earth.
9. By placing the Sun as the center of the
universe, which of the following was
eliminated from Ptolemy’s model by
Copernicus?
A. Epicycle and deferent
B. Stellar parallax
C. The earth as the center
D. Retrograde motion