Geography of Transport Systems

Unit 2 : Transportation Modes and

Transport Terminals

Session 1 :
Transportation Modes:
An Overview
 A Diversity of Modes
• Transport modes are the means by which
people and freight achieve mobility.
• They fall into one of three basic types,
depending on over what surface they travel.
• Land (road, rail and pipelines)
• Water (shipping)
• Air.
• Each mode is characterized by a set of
technical, operational and commercial
characteristics.
Modal options available to Passengers
Modal options available to Freight
Performance Comparison for Selected Freight Modes
 Load of the Global Transport System by Mode
Mode Tons Tons-km Revenue
Road ? 6,000 to 8,500 billion tons-km USD 796 billion (2004)

Rail 8,930 million tons 7,773 billion tons-km USD 330 billion (2004)

10,287 million tons 55,057 billion ton-miles

(loaded) 10,282 (2016)
Maritime million tons 56,299 billion ton-miles
USD 484 billion (2004)
(unloaded) (2017)

• The load of the road transport system is very difficult to assess considering the
variety of transport companies, many of which are of small size.
 Distance, Modal Choice and Transport Costs

C1 C2
Road
Transport costs per unit

C3

Rail Maritime

D1 D2 Distance
 Freight Transport Costs in Cents per Ton-Mile.

Air 4.88

Road 2.51

Rail 0.25

Water 0.07

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
 Principles of Modal Shift
Modal Share (A/B)

Over performance

Modal Rationalization (A)

Underperformance

Modal Rationalization (B)

Inertia Phase Modal Shift Phase Maturity Phase

Time
Modal Competition, Complementarity and
Shift along a Corridor

Modal Competition Modal shift

Modal Complementarity
 Modal Shift in China.
Share of Ton-km by Mode
Share of Passengers-km by Mode
100% 100%
12% 19%
27%
80% 80%

35%
60% 60% 60%

71% 51%
40% 40%

53%
20% 20%
32%
21%
0% 10%
0%
1980 2005 1980 2005
Highways Railways Waterways Airports
Highways Railways Waterways Airports
Geography of Transport Systems

Unit 2 : Transportation Modes and

Transport Terminals

Session 2 :
Road Transportation
 Historical development of Roads
• The first land roads took their origins from trails which were
generally used to move from one hunting territory to another.
• With the emergence of the first forms of nation-states trails
started to be used for commercial purposes as trade expanded
and some became roads, especially through the domestication of
animals such as horses, mules and camels.
• The use of wheeled vehicles encouraged construction of better
roads to support the additional weight.
• A road transport system requires a level of labour organization
and administrative control that could only be provided by a form
of governmental oversight offering some military protection over
trade routes.
• By 3,000 BC the first paved road systems appeared in
Mesopotamia and asphalt was used to pave roads in Babylon by
625 BC.
Linearity, Capacity and Surface of Roads
 Historical development of Roads (2)
• The Persian Empire had a road of 2,300 km in the 5th century BC.
• The first major road system was established by the Roman Empire
from 300 BC and onwards, mainly for economic, military and
administrative reasons.
• Roads in the Roman empire relied on solid road engineering
methods, including the laying of foundations, drainage ditches on
either side and construction of bridges.
• The Road system development was also linked with the
establishment of pan-continental trading routes, such as the Silk
Road, linking Europe and Asia by 100 BC.
 Historical development of Roads (3)
• Following the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century,
integrated road transportation fell out of favour as most roads
were locally constructed and maintained.
• Because of the lack of maintenance of many road segments, land
transport became a very hazardous activity.
• Only after the creation of modern nation-states in the 17th
century, national road transportation systems were formally
established.
• In the 18th century, the French, through central government
efforts, build their Royal Roads system spanning 24,000 km, over
which a public transport service of stage-coaches carrying
passengers and mail was established.
 British system – Turnpike Trusts
• The British, mainly through private efforts, built a 32,000 km system of
turnpikes.
• The first Turnpike Trust was established in 1706. Each Trust was responsible to
construct and maintain a specific road segment, which required capital.
• Capital was publicly raised and revenues were generated by charging tolls on
users.
• Between 1750 and 1800, the average time for a journey from London to
Edinburgh was reduced from 12 to 4 days. Also, the time of a journey from
Manchester to London fell from 3 days in 1760 to 28 hours in 1788.
• Road freight transportation also improved due to the introduction in the 1760s
of "flywagons"; a system of freight distribution involving changing horses and
crews at specific stages and thus permitting day-long movements.
• 1794 marks the beginning of modern road transportation with the first mail
coach service between London and Bristol, operating under a timetable.
• A similar initiative was undertaken in the United States in the 19th century
and by the early 20th century, a network of 3 million km of roads, most
unpaved, was in operation.
 Indicators of Road development of a country
• Meters of road per capita
• Km of road per 100 sq. km operation.
Geography of Transport Systems

Unit 2 : Transportation Modes and

Transport Terminals

Session 3 :
Rail Transportation
 Introduction to Rail Transportation
• Rail transportation refers to the movement of on guideways.
• The most common guideways are rails, but recent technological
developments have also made available monorails as well as
magnetic levitation trains.
• Primitive rail systems existed by the 17th century to move
materials in quarries and mines.
• In the early 19th century, the first real rail transportation systems
came into existence.
• Rail transportation has been the product of the industrial era,
playing a major role in the economic development of Western
Europe, North America and Japan.
• Rail transportation represented a major improvement in land
transport technology and has introduced important changes in
the movement of freight and passengers.
 Comparison of Road & Rail systems

The above graph compares a rail line with a four lane highway
 Economic Rationale of Rail Transportation
Longest service area for inland transport (average length of 1,300 km).
Service both the passengers and freight markets.
Market Area
Intermodal integration favoured market segmentation and
specialization.
A wagon can carry 50 to 100 tons of freight.
Capacity
Economies of scale (unit trains and doublestacking).
High construction and maintenance costs.
High operating costs: labour (60%), locomotives (16%) and fuel &
Costs equipment (24%).
Shipping costs decrease with distance and load.
Transhipments and train assembly increase costs.
Accelerated industrialization.
Benefits Support agricultural and energy supply systems.
Intermodal connecting with international trade.
Conventionally highly dependent from government subsidies.
Government funding, mainly for the sake of national economic
Regulations imperatives.
Normally regulated by Governments. Many rail systems underwent
deregulation with private operators.
Types and Functions of Rail Freight Corridors
Major Gauges of the Global Rail Systems, 2008
Length of the main Gauges of the
Global Rail Systems, 2008
 World High Speed Rail Systems, 2016
• High Speed Rail (HSR) systems are built to reinforce accessibility and
functional relations within well developed regional urban systems (many of
which are mega urban regions).
• HSR fills a gap between short range mobility provided by cars and buses
and medium range mobility provided by air transport.
• There was as of 2016 more than 34,800 km of operational HSR lines in the
world with an additional 24,800 km under construction.
• These lines were initially set as corridors between city-pairs and their
growth eventually lead to integrated systems spanning extended regions,
such as for Japan, Coastal China and Western Europe.
• While services remain designed along corridors, nodes where it is possible
to effectively switch from one corridor to the other are emerging.
• Like air transport, a good frequency of high speed services enables these
interconnections to occur effectively.
• HSR systems are mainly found in Asia, Europe and North America where
they have contributed in structuring intercity mobility.
 Comparison Between European, North
American and Pacific Asian Railways
Issue Europe North America Pacific Asia
Separation by region
Separation of
(markets) (private
infrastructure from Infrastructure and
companies and
Organization operations (for operations publicly
concessions of
accountancy owned
vertically integrated
purposes)
companies)
Market Focus Passenger oriented Freight oriented Passenger oriented

Infrastructure mainly
publicly owned with a
few exceptions (e.g.
UK). Freight
Ownership Private Public
equipment and
terminals increasingly
privately owned and
operated.

Distance Short to medium Medium to long Short to long

 Triple
Crown
Intermodal
Network
• A bi-modal transport
network.
• Uses a hybrid
technology.
• It combines specifically
designed trailers with
rail bogies (called
RoadRailers) to form
unit trains that can be
composed of up to 150
trailers.
• Load units (trailers) are
simply assembled in
rail convoys at the
origin and
disassembled at the
destination.
Geography of Transport Systems

Unit 2 : Transportation Modes and

Transport Terminals

Session 4 :
Maritime Transport
The Maritime Transport Life Cycle and
Main National Actors
Emerging Global Maritime Freight Transport System
• A global maritime freight transport system has been established since the
late 19th century and expanded with containerization.
• It includes east-west and north-south routes and locations enabling
interconnectivity between these systems of circulation.
• Refer the map to get an idea as to how this system is likely to take in the
coming years. The main components are:
• Circum Equatorial Route.
• North-South Connectors
• Transoceanic Connectors.
• Transhipment Markets.
• Polar Routes
Share of Foreign-flagged Deadweight Tonnage, 1989-2011
Tonnage by Country of Registry, 2013
Flexibility and Specialization of Major Ship Designs
World Tonnage by Cargo Vessel Type, 1970-2012
(in millions dwt)
Vessel Size Groups (in deadweight tons)
 Maritime Shipping Characteristics Based on
Share in Maritime Transport (2000)

Tramping Liner Shipping

Tons 70% 30%
Value 20% 80%
 Maritime Shipping Characteristics Based on
Transportation Demand
Tramping Liner Shipping
Number of
Few Many
shippers
Quantity Large Small
Density High (weight) Low (volume)
Unit value Low High
Regularity Low High
 Maritime Shipping Characteristics Based on
Transportation Supply
Tramping Liner Shipping
Booking Note
Contract Charter Party
(Bill of lading?)
General cargo (mostly
Vessels Liquid and bulk
containerized)
Frequency Spot Basis Regular - Fixed in advance
 Maritime Shipping Characteristics
based on Implications
Tramping Liner Shipping
Liquid and main bulk Minor bulk and general
Freight
commodities cargo (containerized)
supply / demand
Services Prior to demand
regulation
Freight
Low Low
elasticity
Developing / Developed / developed
Markets
developed countries countries
Trade and Ship Characteristics – General Cargo
Cargo Type Trade Characteristics Vessel Size
Varied small
consignments,
Numerous consignees,
Conventional Small
Slow handling rates,
Various routes,
Numerous ports
More uniform cargo,
Small to large (size
Unitized (containers) Rapid handling, Many
increasing)
ports
 Cargo, Trade and Ship Characteristics – Dry Bulk
Cargo Type Trade Characteristics Vessel Size
Small to medium
consignments, Varied
Grain Small to medium
handling rates, Many
restrictive ports
Large consignments,
Long hauls, Moderate
Ores/Coal handling rates, Medium to very large
Specialized terminals,
Few ports
 Cargo, Trade and Ship Characteristics – Liquid Bulk
Cargo Type Trade Characteristics Vessel Size
Very large
consignments, Long
Very large to ultra
Crude oil hauls, Few routes,
large
Specialized terminals,
Few ports
Small shipments,
Oil products Numerous consignees, Small to medium
Many ports
 Types of Maritime Routes
1. Port-to-port: Involves a more or less regular service
between two ports, often moving back and forth
with unidirectional freight flows, which involves an
empty backhaul. This structure has the
disadvantage of offering limited connectivity and
mainly represents movements of raw materials
such as oil, minerals and grain, between zones of
extraction and main consumption markets.
2. Pendulum: This type of route is characterizing
containerized cargo and involves a regular itinerary
between a sequence of ports where the maritime
shipping line seeks to optimize their ship use by
electing to service ports having important trade
relations.
3. Round-the-World: Involves servicing continuously a
sequence of ports, often in both directions, so that
the sequence involves a trip around the world. A
limited amount of ports per continent are serviced.
This type of maritime route strictly concerns
container shipping and involves a series of
transhipment hubs where regional cargo is
collected.
Pendulum Services and Cabotage
• Pendulum services must be specifically
structured in order not to infringe national
cabotage laws (such as the Jones Act in the
United States) preventing a foreign maritime
company to carry freight between domestic
ports.
• For instance, for a pendulum service D-A-B-
C-D, a maritime shipping company registered
in country 2 has the right to unload or load
freight at ports A, B or C in country 1 as long
as this freight is coming from or bound to a
foreign port (port D in this case).
• Moving freight from port A to port B or C
would not be permitted since it would be
considered as cabotage.
• That same maritime shipping company
would however be able to carry freight
between ports D, E and F (cabotage) since it
is registered in country 2.
 Types of Pendulum Routes

• Pendulum services involve a set of sequential port calls along a maritime range,
commonly including a transoceanic service to ports in another range and structured as a
continuous loop.
• They are almost exclusively used for container shipping with the purpose of servicing a
market by balancing the number of port calls and the frequency of services.
• For instance, pendulum services between Asia and Europe have on average 8 to 10
containerships assigned involving 8 to 12 port calls.
• A service between Asia and the US West Coast would have 5 to 7 ships. Most transatlantic
pendulum services have 6 to 8 containerships and involve 6 to 8 port calls.
Average TEU per Port Call by Containership
Size along a Maritime Range systems
Schedule Reliability in Container Shipping, 2010
International and Domestic Short-Sea Shipping Characteristics
Characteristics International Market
Operations Lift-on/Lift-off (lo/lo)
ISO Containers (typically 40 x 8
Equipment
x 8.5 feet; 2 TEU)
Major deepwater port to
Service Area
secondary port (or vice versa)
Infrastructure Shore-side cranes and
Requirements container storage areas
Domestic Market
Roll-on/Roll-off (ro/ro)
Domestic containers (53-foot) or truck
trailers
Secondary port to secondary port
Minimal, particularly if vessels have
self-sustaining ramps
World's Largest Maritime Container Shipping
Operators, 2015
 Specifications for Very Large Post-Panamax
Containerships
"E Class" (Emma "S Class"
Parameter "Triple E Class"
Maersk) (Sovereign Maersk)
Capacity (TEU) 18,000 14,500 8,400
Length (meters) 400 393 348
Width (meters) 59 56 43
Draft (meters) 15.5 15.5 14
Deadweight (tons) 165,000 156,900 105,000
Speed (knots) 23 (19 optimal) 25.5 25
The Largest Available Containership
1970-2015 (in TEUs)
Self-propelled Container Barge, Seine River
 Operating Costs of Panamax and
Post-panamax Containerships (in USD)
The Disadvantages of Scale in Maritime Shipping
Average Draft by Containership Capacity
Ton-Miles Shipped by Maritime Transportation,
1970-2012 (in billions)
Ultra Large Ore Carrier, the Berge Stahl
Year Built : 1986
DWT : 365,000 deadweight tons
L.O.A. : 343 meters
Beam : 65 meters
Draught : 25 meters
Load port : Brazil (Ponta da Madeira in Itaqui)
Discharge : Rotterdam (Europoort)
Deployment of the Global Cruise Fleet, 2011
Registered World Fleet, 1914-2010
Deviation from the Main Shipping Route of
Mediterranean Container Ports
Maritime Deviation
 The Concept of Maritime Range
• A maritime range is a functional area jointly
defined by its hinterland when inland
markets are serviced and by its foreland
when transhipment is taking place.
• A maritime range is an area where a set of
ports are either in competition,
complementary, sharing a common
regulatory regime (when the range extends
across several countries) or having some
geographical commonality (e.g. simple
contiguity, proximity or being part of an
archipelago).
• Commercial services are established by
maritime shipping companies to either link
maritime ranges (deep-sea services) or to
connect the range itself with regional,
feeder or cabotage services.
• A maritime range thus represents a
functional region that includes the coast
(the maritime / land interface) but as well
as an hinterland and a maritime boundary.
 Maritime Transportation Rates for a 40 Foot
Container between Selected Ports, 2010

Source: Drewry Shipping Consultants. Note: Rates are for full container loads and include the
base ocean shipping rate across ship classes, port charges both at origin and at destination,
fuel surcharges and all other surcharges.
The Scales of Analysis of Maritime Transportation
Geography of Transport Systems

Unit 2 : Transportation Modes and

Transport Terminals

Session 5 :
Air Transport
 Major Segments of Air Transportation
• Passenger Transportation (Air Travel).
• Cargo Transportation (Air Freight).
 World Air Travel and
World Air Freight Carried, 1950-2014
Early Intercontinental Air Routes, 1930s
 Stages in Air Network Development

Stage 1 Stage 3
(Initial development; (Proximity effect).
connecting effect).

Stage 2 Stage 4
(By-passing effect) (Hubbing effect)
 The World's
Longest Nonstop
Air Transport
Routes, 2016
 Characteristics of Major Air Travel Markets
United States
Deregulation started in 1978
Low population density and
dispersed urban centers
Relatively open air spaces
and airports
Rail minor competitor; Car
compete for short distances
No loyalty to carriers (pricing Some lingering loyalty to
and frequent flyers)
Price transparency
Limited income growth and
limited leisure
Europe Pacific Asia
Regulated markets with
Deregulation started in 1997
government ownership
Dispersion of urban centers
High population density and
but high regional
concentrated urban centers
concentrations
Congested gateway airports
Congested air spaces and
underutilized regional
airports
airports
High speed rail is a direct
Except for Japan, less
competitor; Rail is a minor
competition from other
competitor; Car compete for
transportation modes
short distances
Strong imposed loyalty to
carriers carriers
Price becoming transparent Price not transparent
Limited income growth and
Growing income levels
more leisure time
Average Airfare (roundtrip) between New York and
London, 1946-2012 (in 2012 dollars)
Air Unit Load Device
 Air Unit Load Device
• Unit load devices (ULD) come in several dimensions and are
designed to fit the bellyhold of a jet plane, particularly wide-
bodied aircrafts.
• The number of containers that can be fitted is a function of the
length of the cargo area.
• The loading of ULDs is rather simple as it involves rolling in the
container. 32 ULDs can be loaded in a 747-400.
• ULDs offer several advantages:
• They use standardized sizes and equipment that fit in
most commercial aircrafts.
• Faster handling (loading and unloading) and tracking of the
cargo.
• The main drawback is that ULDs can only by used for air cargo
operations and a transfer to another mode (trucking) requires
consolidating or deconsolidating the loads carried.