source of electromotive force

A device that, by doing work on charge carriers, maintains a

potential difference between its terminals is called a source of
electromotive force (emf).

Other form of energy is converted into

electricity in a source of electromotive force:

battery - chemical energy

electric generator - mechanical energy
solar cell - electromagnetic radiation
thermopile - internal energy
living cell - chemical energy
 electromotive force

The maximum electric potential difference that can exist

between the terminals of the voltage source is called the
electromotive force of that source.

Voltage produced by a real source of electromotive force:

+
r 
- V  V    Ir

I
 direct and alternating current

+ + + + + + + + + + ++
+ ++ + + ++ + +
+ ++ + + ++ + + + ++ + +
+ + + ++ + ++ + + +
++
+ ++ + + ++ + ++
+ + + ++ + + + ++
++ + + ++++ + + ++ + + +
++ + + ++ + ++ + +

If the charge moves in a circuit in the same direction at all times, the
current is said to be direct current (DC). Constant current (independent
of time) is a special case of direct current.

If the charges move (across a surface) changing their direction of

motion, the current is said to be alternating current (AC).
 circuit analysis
Kirchhoff's Junction Rule: Kirchhoff's Loop Rule:
The sum of all the currents Around any closed circuit loop
entering a junction is zero. the sum of potential differences
is zero.
V2
In
I1

I2 Vn

 Ii  0
V1

 Vi  0
i

i
 electrical measurements
Current is measured with an ammeter, which must be inserted into the
circuit in series with the element in which the current is measured.

Voltage is measured with a voltmeter, which must be inserted into the

circuit in parallel to the elements across which the voltage is measured.
The resistance of passive elements can be measured with an ohmmeter.

V - V
? A
+

 electric current & the human body

Currents of 200 mA can be fatal. A current that strong can

affect the proper operation of the heart.

A current above 100 mA can cause muscle spasm.

A person can sense an AC with a current of 1mA.

NEVER TOUCH AN OPERATING CIRCUIT WITH

BOTH HANDS !!!
 inductors
An inductor is an element of a circuit with two sides for which
(at any instant) the potential difference V between its terminals
is proportional to the rate of change in current I passing
through this element.

I
dI
Va Vb Va  Vb  L
dt

The proportionality coefficient L is called the inductance of

the inductor.
Vs
In SI the henry is the unit of inductance H
A
 sinusoidal Va(t) Vb(t)

alternating current
I (t)
For a sinusoidal alternating
current, both the voltage V(t) I V
across an element and the
current I(t) through this element t
are sinusoidal functions of time.

V( t )  Vm sin( t  v ) Vm, Im - the peak value

(t+) - the phase
 = 2f - the angular frequency
I( t )  Im sin( t  I )
 - the initial phase
 electric power P
Pav V
Electric power delivered to an t
electrical element is a sinusoidal
I
function of time.
P( t )  It   Vt   I m Vm  sin( t   I )  sin( t   V ) 

 I m Vm  cos V   I   cos2t   I   V 
1
2

Pav  I rms Vrms cos  where   V  I

 
1
f rms  f t 
2
av
2
 AC in the US
standard one phase power line

breaker
120 V

“zero”
0V
“hot”

“ground” 0V

0V

The voltage oscillates with frequency f = 60 Hz.

 AC in the US
three phase power line
2
Three "hot" wires with phases differing by ,
3
the "zero" and the "ground" wires are connected
to the outlet.
V

The rms voltage between any "hot" wire and the zero wire is 127 V.
The voltage between any two "hot" wires is 220 V.
 complex voltage
The complex function V(t) such that the voltage across the element is
V(t) = Im V(t)
is called the complex voltage.

V Im V
Vm V (t)
t+V
t Re V
t
-Vm

Sinusoidal voltage:  
V  t   Vm e i V e it  V0  e it
Im V t   ImVm cost  V   i sin t  V   Vm sin t  V   Vt 
 complex current
The complex function I(t) such that the current through the element is
I(t) = Im I(t)
is called the complex current.

I Im I
Im
I (t)
t+I
t Re I
t

-Im

Sinusoidal current:  
I t   Imei V eit  I 0  eit
Im I t   ImIm cost  V   i sin t  V   Im sin t  V   It 
 relation between voltage and current
Vm
Vm = Im·Z Im V
 I
t  V   t  I    t

The coefficient Z relating the peak values of the voltage across the
system with the peak value of the current through the system is called
the impedance of the system.
The number  relating the phase of the voltage across the system
with the phase of the current through the system is called the phase
angle between the current and the voltage

note that: Vrms = Irms·Z and V = I + 

 complex impedance
The complex coefficient Z, relating the complex voltage across
an element with the complex current through this element, is
called the complex impedance of this element at frequency :
V

V t   I VttZ I Vt 0,Z 
 I0,   Z
Im
I Z
 Z


   
Re
V 
V  Vmei V  eit   m ei   Imei I  eit  Z  I
 Im 

Complex impedance Z includes information about both the

impedance Z as well as about the phase angle
Im Z
Z Z tan  
Re Z
 AC in a resistor
I
real analysis
I m sin t  I 
Vt   R  It   Im  R
a

 R
impedance and phase angle
b

ZR   R , 0

average power:
Pav  Irms  Vrms cos 0 V
2 I
Vrms t
 I 2rms R 
R
 AC in a resistor
complex analysis
I
V t R RI I Im
Im V t   V t  R  I t 
a
complex impedance
 R ZR() = R
b
Im Z
ZR  Z  R , tan   0
Re Z
Im
V
I V
I
Re t
ZR
 AC in an inductor
I
real analysis
d d
a Vt   L  I t   L
 Im sin t  I  =
dt dt
 
  L  Im cost  I   L  Im   sin  t  I  
L  2
b impedance and phase angle

ZL   L ,  
2
average power:
 I V
Pav  I rms  Vrms  cos  0
2
t
 complex analysis
I
dI d it  dI 
t  VLt  V  L  I0eIm Li L  I t 
VIm dI
a dt dt  dt 
 L
complex impedance
ZL() = iL
b
Im Z
ZL  Z  L , tan   
Re Z
Im
V
I V
ZL
I
Re t
 AC in an capacitor
I real analysis
t t CVm  sin t  V   C  Vm cost  V  
 V d
ItQ
a dt
 
Q  CVm   sin  t  V  
 C  2
-Q
b impedance and phase angle
1 
ZC   , 
C 2

average power: V
  I
Pav  Irms  Vrms  cos    0
 2 t