Chapter 5

CHAPTER
5
Logic
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

5.1
Section Logic Statements and
Quantifiers

Logic Statements
3
Logic Statements
Every language contains different types of sentences, such
as statements, questions, and commands. For instance,
“Is the test today?” is a question.

“Go get the newspaper” is a command.
“This is a nice car” is an opinion.
“Denver is the capital of Colorado” is a statement of fact.
4
Logic Statements
The symbolic logic that Boole was instrumental in creating
applies only to sentences that are statements as defined
below.
5
Example 1 – Identify Statements
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
a. Florida is a state in the United States.
b. How are you?
c. 99 + 2 is a prime number.
d. x + 1 = 5.
Solution:
a. Florida is one of the 50 states in the United States, so
this sentence is true and it is a statement.
b. The sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a

declarative sentence. Thus it is not a statement.
6
Example 1 – Solution cont’d
c. You may not know whether 99 + 2 is a prime number;

however, you do know that it is a whole number
larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not
a prime number. The sentence is either true or it is
false, and it is not both true and false, so it is a
statement.
d. x + 1 = 5 is a statement. It is known as an open

statement. It is true for x = 4, and it is false for any
other values of x. For any given value of x, it is true or
false but not both.
7
Simple Statements and
Compound Statements
8
Simple Statements and Compound Statements
Connecting simple statements with words and phrases

such as and, or, if . . . then, and if and only if creates a
compound statement. For instance, “I will attend the
meeting or I will go to school.” is a compound statement.
It is composed of the two simple statements, “I will attend

the meeting.” and “I will go to school.” The word or is a
connective for the two simple statements.
9
George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r, and s to

represent simple statements and the symbols
and to represent connectives. See Table 5.1.
Logic Connectives and Symbols

Table 5.1
10
The negation of the statement “Today is Friday.” is the

statement “Today is not Friday.” In symbolic logic, the tilde
symbol is used to denote the negation of a statement. If a
statement p is true, its negation p is false, and if a
statement p is false, its negation p is true.
11
Example 2 – Write the Negation of a Statement
Write the negation of each statement.
a. Ellie Goulding is an opera singer.

b. The dog does not need to be fed.
Solution:
a. Ellie Goulding is not an opera singer.
b. The dog needs to be fed.
12
We will often find it useful to write compound statements in

symbolic form.
13
Example 3 – Write Compound Statements in Symbolic Form
Consider the following simple statements.

p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.
Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a
movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
14
Example 3 – Solution
15
In the next example, we translate symbolic statements into

English sentences.
16
Example 4 – Translate Symbolic Statements
Consider the following statements.
p: The game will be played in Atlanta.

q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Mets are favored to win.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
17
a. The game will be shown on CBS and the game will be
played in Atlanta.
b. The game will be shown on ESPN and the Mets are

favored to win.
c. The Mets are favored to win if and only if the game will
not be played in Atlanta.
18
Compound Statements and
Grouping Symbols
19
Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols
If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then

parentheses are used to indicate which simple statements
are grouped together.
Table 5.2 illustrates the use of parentheses to indicate

groupings for some statements in symbolic form.
Table 5.2
20
If a compound statement is written as an English sentence,

then a comma is used to indicate which simple statements
are grouped together. Statements on the same side of a
comma are grouped together. See Table 5.3.
Table 5.3
21
If a statement in symbolic form is written as an English

sentence, then the simple statements that appear together
in parentheses in the symbolic form will all be on the same
side of the comma that appears in the English sentence.
22
Example 5 – Translate Compound Statements
Let p, q, and r represent the following.

p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.
a. Write as an English sentence.
b. Write “If you do not complete the training, then you will
not get a promotion and you will not receive a bonus.” in
symbolic form.
23
Example 5(a) – Solution
Because the p and the q statements both appear in
parentheses in the symbolic form, they are placed to the
left of the comma in the English sentence.
Thus the translation is: If you get a promotion and complete

the training, then you will receive a bonus.
24
Example 5(b) – Solution cont’d
Because the not p and the not r statements are both to

the right of the comma in the English sentence, they are
grouped together in parentheses in the symbolic form.
Thus the translation is:
25
If you order cake and ice cream in a restaurant, the waiter

will bring both cake and ice cream. In general, the
conjunction is true if both p and q are true, and the
conjunction is false if either p or q is false.
The truth table at the right

shows the four possible
cases that arise when we
form a conjunction of two
statements.
26
Any disjunction is true if p is true or q is true or both

p and q are true. The truth table below shows that the
disjunction p or q is false if both p and q are false; however,
it is true in all other cases.
27
Example 6 – Determine the Truth Value of a Statement
Determine whether each statement is true or false.

a. 7  5.
b. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
c. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
Solution:
a. 7  5 means 7 > 5 or 7 = 5. Because 7 > 5 is true, the
statement 7  5 is a true statement.
b. This is a false statement because 5 is not an even
number.
c. This is a true statement because each simple
statement is true. 28
Quantifiers and Negation
29
In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists
and at least one are called existential quantifiers.
Existential quantifiers are used as prefixes to assert the
existence of something.
In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are

called universal quantifiers. The universal quantifiers
none and no deny the existence of something, whereas the
universal quantifiers all and every are used to assert that
every element of a given set satisfies some condition.
30
What is the negation of the false statement, “No doctors
write in a legible manner”?
Whatever the negation is, we know it must be a true

statement. The negation cannot be “All doctors write in a
legible manner,” because this is also a false statement.
The negation is “Some doctors write in a legible manner.”

This can also be stated as, “There exists at least one
doctor who writes in a legible manner.”
31
Table 5.4A illustrates how to write the negation of some
quantified statements.
Quantified Statements and Their Negations

Table 5.4A
32
Example 7 – Write the Negation of a Quantified Statement
Write the negation of each of the following statements.

a. Some airports are open.
b. All movies are worth the price of admission.
c. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
Solution:
a. No airports are open.
b. Some movies are not worth the price of admission.
c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.
33
5.2
Section Truth Tables, Equivalent
Statements, and Tautologies

34
Truth Tables
35
Truth Tables
In this section, we consider methods of constructing truth
tables for a statement that involves a combination of
conjunctions, disjunctions, and/or negations.
If the given statement involves only two simple statements,

then start with a table with four rows (see the table below),
called the standard truth table form, and proceed as
shown in Example 1.
Standard truth table form for a given statement that

involves only the two simple statements p and q
36
Example 1 – Truth Tables
a. Construct a table for .
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth
value of , given that p is true and q is false.
Solution:
a. Start with the standard truth table form and then include
a column.
37
Now use the truth values from the ~p and q columns to

produce the truth values for as shown in the
rightmost column of the following table.
38
Negate the truth values in the column to produce

the following.
39
As our last step, we form the disjunction of

with q and place the results in the rightmost column of
the table. See the following table. The shaded column is
the truth table for .
b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that when p is

true, and q is false, the statement in the
rightmost column is true.
40
Truth Tables
Compound statements that involve exactly three simple
statements require a standard truth table form with 23 = 8
rows, as shown below.
Standard truth table form for a statement that

involves the three simple statements p, q, and r
41
Alternative Method for the
Construction of a Truth Table
42
Alternative Method for the Construction of a Truth Table
In Example 3 we use an alternative procedure to construct

a truth table.
43
Example 3 – Use the Alternative Procedure to Construct a Truth Table
Construct a truth table for .
Solution:
Step 1: The given statement has the two
simple statements p and q. Thus we start with a
standard form that has 22 = 4 rows.
44
In each column, enter the truth values for the statements

p and ~q, as shown in the columns numbered 1, 2, and 3
of the following table.
45
Step 2: Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to

determine the truth values to enter under the “and”
connective. See column 4 in the following truth
table. Now negate the truth values in column
4 to produce the truth values in column 5.
46
Step 3: Use the truth values in the columns 1 and 5 to

determine the truth values to enter under
the “or” connective. See column 6 in the following
table. Shaded column 6 is the truth table
for
47
Equivalent Statements
48
Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same
truth value for all possible truth values of their simple
statements. Equivalent statements have identical truth
values in the final columns of their truth tables.
The notation p  q is used to indicate that the statements p

and q are equivalent.
49
Example 4 – Verify That Two Statements Are Equivalent
Show that and are equivalent statements.
Solution:
Construct two truth tables and compare the results. The
truth tables below show that and have the
same truth values for all possible truth values of their
simple statements. Thus the statements are equivalent.
50
These equivalences are known as De Morgan’s laws for
statements.
De Morgan’s laws can be used to restate certain English

sentences in an equivalent form.
51
Example 5 – State an Equivalent Form
Use one of De Morgan’s laws to restate the following
sentence in an equivalent form.
It is not true that, I graduated or I got a job.
Solution:
Let p represent the statement “I graduated.” Let q represent
the statement “I got a job.” In symbolic form, the original
sentence is . One of De Morgan’s laws states that
this is equivalent to .
Thus a sentence that is equivalent to the original sentence

is “I did not graduate and I did not get a job.”
52
Tautologies and Self-Contradictions
53
Tautologies and Self-Contradictions
A tautology is a statement that is always true.
A self-contradiction is a statement that is always false.
54
Example 6 – Verify Tautologies and Self-Contradictions
Show that is a tautology.
Solution:
Enter the truth values for each simple statement and its
negation as shown in the columns numbered 1, 2, and 3.
Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to determine the

truth values to enter in column 4, under the “or” connective.

55
Column 5 of the table shows that is always true.
Thus is a tautology.
56
5.3
Section The Conditional and the
Biconditional

57
Conditional Statements
58
Conditional statements can be written in if p, then q form
or in if p, q form. For instance, all of the following are
conditional statements.
If we order pizza, then we can have it delivered.
If you go to the movie, you will not be able to meet us for
dinner.
If n is a prime number greater than 2, then n is an odd
number.
In any conditional statement represented by “If p, then q” or
by “If p, q,” the p statement is called the antecedent and
the q statement is called the consequent.
59
Example 1 – Identify the Antecedent and Consequent of a Conditional
Identify the antecedent and consequent in the following

statements.
a. If our school was this nice, I would go there more than

once a week.—The Basketball Diaries
b. If you don’t get in that plane, you’ll regret it.

—Casablanca
c. If you strike me down, I shall become more powerful

than you can possibly imagine.—Obi-Wan Kenobi, Star
Wars, Episode IV, A New Hope
60
a. Antecedent: our school was this nice
Consequent: I would go there more than once a week
b. Antecedent: you don’t get in that plane

Consequent: you’ll regret it
c. Antecedent: you strike me down

Consequent: I shall become more powerful than you can
possibly imagine
61
62
The Truth Table for the Conditional
pq
63
The Truth Table for the Conditional p  q
To determine the truth table for p  q, consider the

advertising slogan for a web authoring software product
that states, “If you can use a word processor, you can
create a webpage.”
This slogan is a conditional statement.
The antecedent is p, “you can use a word processor,” and

the consequent is q, “you can create a webpage.”
64
Now consider the truth value of p  q for each of the

following four possibilities.
Table 5.7
65
Row 1: Antecedent T, Consequent T

You can use a word processor, and you can create a
webpage. In this case the truth value of the advertisement
is true. To complete Table 5.7, we place a T in place of the
question mark in row 1.
Row 2: Antecedent T, Consequent F

You can use a word processor, but you cannot create a
webpage. In this case the advertisement is false. We put
an F in place of the question mark in row 2 of Table 5.7.
66
Row 3: Antecedent F, Consequent T

You cannot use a word processor, but you can create a
webpage. Because the advertisement does not make any
statement about what you might or might not be able to do
if you cannot use a word processor, we cannot state that
the advertisement is false, and we are compelled to place a
T in place of the question mark in row 3 of Table 5.7.
Table 5.7
67
Row 4: Antecedent F, Consequent F

You cannot use a word processor, and you cannot create a
webpage. Once again we must consider the truth value in
this case to be true because the advertisement does not
make any statement about what you might or might not be
able to do if you cannot use a word processor. We place a
T in place of the question mark in row 4 of Table 5.7.
68
The truth table for the conditional p  q is given in Table

5.8.
Truth Table for p  q

Table 5.8
69
Example 3 – Construct a Truth Table for a Statement Involving a Conditional
Construct a truth table for .
Solution:
Enter the truth values for each simple statement and its
negation as shown in columns 1, 2, 3, and 4.


truth values to enter in column 6 under the “and”
connective.
70

truth values to enter in column 7 under the “If . . . then”
connective.
71
An Equivalent Form of the
Conditional
72
An Equivalent Form of the Conditional
The truth table for ~p q is shown in Table 5.9. The truth
values in this table are identical to the truth values in Table
5.8.
Truth Table for ~p q Truth Table for p  q

Table 5.9 Table 5.8
73
An Equivalent Form of the Conditional
Hence, the conditional p  q is equivalent to the disjunction
~p q.
74
Example 4 – Write a Conditional in Its Equivalent Disjunctive Form
Write each of the following in its equivalent disjunctive form.
a. If I could play the guitar, I would join the band.

b. If Cam Newton cannot play, then his team will lose.
Solution:
In each case we write the disjunction of the negation of the
antecedent and the consequent.
a. I cannot play the guitar or I would join the band.

b. Cam Newton can play or his team will lose.
75
The Negation of the Conditional
76
The Negation of the Conditional
Because , an equivalent form of
is given by , which, by one of De Morgan’s laws,
can be expressed as the conjunction
77
Example 5 – Write the Negation of a Conditional Statement
Write the negation of each conditional statement.
a. If they pay me the money, I will sign the contract.

b. If the lines are parallel, then they do not intersect.
Solution:
In each case, we write the conjunction of the antecedent
and the negation of the consequent.
a. They paid me the money and I did not sign the contract.
b. The lines are parallel and they intersect.
78
The Biconditional
79
The Biconditional
The statement is called a biconditional
and is denoted by which is read as “p if and only if
q.”
80
The Biconditional
Table 5.10 shows that p q is true only when p and q
have the same truth value.
Truth Table for p q

Table 5.10
81
Example 7 – Determine the Truth Value of a Biconditional
State whether each biconditional is true or false.
a. x + 4 = 7 if and only if x = 3.
b. x2 = 36 if and only if x = 6.
Solution:
a. Both equations are true when x = 3, and both are false
when x  3. Both equations have the same truth value
for any value of x, so this is a true statement.
b. If x = –6, the first equation is true and the second

equation is false. Thus this is a false statement.
82
5.4
Section The Conditional
and Related Statements

83
Equivalent Forms of the
Conditional
84
Equivalent Forms of the Conditional
Every conditional statement can be stated in many
equivalent forms.
It is not even necessary to state the antecedent before the

consequent.
For instance, the conditional “If I live in Boston, then I must

live in Massachusetts” can also be stated as
I must live in Massachusetts, if I live in Boston.
85
Equivalent Forms of the Conditional
Table 5.11 lists some of the various forms that may be
used to write a conditional statement.
Common Forms of p  q
Table 5.11
86
Example 1 – Write a Statement in an Equivalent Form
Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form.

a. The number is an even number provided that it is
divisible by 2.
b. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.
Solution:
a. The statement, “The number is an even number
provided that it is divisible by 2,” is in “q provided that
p” form.
The antecedent is “it is divisible by 2,” and the
consequent is “the number is an even number.”
87
Thus its “If p, then q” form is

If it is divisible by 2, then the number is an even
number.
b. The statement, “Today is Friday, only if yesterday was

Thursday,” is in “p only if q” form. The antecedent is
“today is Friday.”
The consequent is “yesterday was Thursday.” Its “If p,

then q” form is
If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday.

88
The Converse, the Inverse, and
the Contrapositive
89
The Converse, the Inverse, and the Contrapositive
Every conditional statement has three related statements.

They are called the converse, the inverse, and the
contrapositive.
The above definitions show the following:

• The converse of p  q is formed by interchanging the
antecedent p with the consequent q.
90
The Converse, the Inverse, and the Contrapositive
• The inverse of p  q is formed by negating the

antecedent p and negating the consequent q.
• The contrapositive of p  q is formed by negating both

the antecedent p and the consequent q and
interchanging these negated statements.
91
Example 2 – Write the Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive of a Conditional
Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of
If I get the job, then I will rent the apartment.
Solution:
Converse: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.
Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not rent the
apartment.
Contrapositive: If I do not rent the apartment, then I did not

get the job.
92
5.5
Section Symbolic Arguments

93
Arguments
94
Arguments
In this section we consider methods of analyzing
arguments to determine whether they are valid or invalid.
For instance, consider the following argument.
If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal.

Aristotle was human. Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.
To determine whether the above argument is a valid

argument, we must first define the terms argument and
valid argument.
95
Arguments
In the argument about Aristotle, the two premises and the

conclusion are shown below. It is customary to place a
horizontal line between the premises and the conclusion.
First Premise: If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was
mortal.
Second Premise: Aristotle was human.
Conclusion: Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.
96
Arguments
Arguments can be written in symbolic form. For instance,
if we let h represent the statement “Aristotle was human”
and m represent the statement “Aristotle was mortal,” then
the argument can be expressed as
The three dots are a symbol for “therefore.”
97
Example 1 – Write an Argument in Symbolic Form
Write the following argument in symbolic form.
The fish is fresh or I will not order it. The fish is fresh.
Therefore I will order it.
Solution:
Let f represent the statement “The fish is fresh.” Let o
represent the statement “I will order it.”
The symbolic form of the argument is
98
Arguments and Truth Tables
99
Arguments and Truth Tables
The following truth table procedure can be used to determine
whether an argument is valid or invalid.
In Example 2, we use the truth table method to determine the

validity of a more complicated argument.
100
Example 2 – Determine the Validity of an Argument
Determine whether the following argument is valid or

invalid.
If it rains, then the game will not be played. It is not

raining. Therefore, the game will be played.
Solution:
If we let r represent “it rains” and g represent “the game will
be played,” then the symbolic form is
101
The truth table for this argument follows.
Because the conclusion in row 4 is false and the premises

are both true, the argument is invalid.
102
Standard Forms
103
Standard Forms
Arguments can be shown to be valid if they have the same
symbolic form as an argument that is known to be valid.
For instance, we have shown that the argument
is valid. This symbolic form is known as direct reasoning.

All arguments that have this symbolic form are valid.
104
Standard Forms
Table 5.15 shows four symbolic forms and the name used
to identify each form. Any argument that has a symbolic
form identical to one of these symbolic forms is a valid
argument.
Standard Forms of Four Valid Arguments

Table 5.15
105
Standard Forms
Transitive reasoning can be extended to include more than
two conditional premises.
For instance, if the conditional premises of an argument are

p  q, q  r, and r  s, then a valid conclusion for the
argument is p  s.
106
Example 7 – Determine a Valid Conclusion for an Argument
Use all of the premises to determine a valid conclusion for

the following argument.
We will not go to Japan (~j) or we will go to Hong

Kong (h). If we visit my uncle (u), then we will go to
Singapore (s). If we go to Hong Kong, then we will not
go to Singapore.
Solution:
In symbolic form the argument is
107
The first premise can be written as j  h. The

contrapositive of the second premise is ~s  ~u.
Therefore, the argument can be written as
Interchanging the second and third premises yields
108
An application of transitive reasoning produces
Thus a valid conclusion for the original argument is “If we

go to Japan (j), then we will not visit my uncle (~u).”
109
5.6
Section Arguments and Euler
Diagrams

110
Arguments and Euler Diagrams
111
Many arguments involve sets whose elements are
described using the quantifiers all, some, and none.
The mathematician Leonhard Euler used

diagrams to determine whether arguments that involved
quantifiers were valid or invalid.
112
The following figures show Euler diagrams that illustrate
the four possible relationships that can exist between two
sets.
Euler diagrams
113
Euler used diagrams to illustrate logic concepts. Some
100 years later, John Venn extended the use of Euler’s
diagrams to illustrate many types of mathematics.
In this section, we will construct diagrams to determine the

validity of arguments.
We will refer to these diagrams as Euler diagrams.
114
Example 1 – Use an Euler Diagram to Determine the Validity of an Argument
Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the following

argument is valid or invalid.
Solution:
The first premise indicates that the set of college courses is
a subset of the set of fun courses.
115
We illustrate this subset relationship with an Euler diagram,

as shown in Figure 5.15.
Figure 5.15
The second premise tells us that “this course” is an

element of the set of college courses.
116
If we use c to represent “this course,” then c must be

placed inside the set of college courses, as shown in
Figure 5.16.
Figure 5.16
Figure 5.16 illustrates that c must also be an element of the

set of fun courses. Thus the argument is valid.
117
Euler Diagrams and
Transitive Reasoning
118
Euler Diagrams and Transitive Reasoning
Example 4 uses Euler diagrams to visually illustrate

transitive reasoning.
119
Example 4 – Use an Euler Diagram to Determine the Validity of an Argument
Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the following

argument is valid or invalid.
Solution:
The figure at the right illustrates that every fried food is an
element of the set of healthy foods, so the argument is
valid.
120
Using Euler Diagrams to Form
Conclusions
121
Using Euler Diagrams to Form Conclusions
In Example 5, we make use of an Euler diagram to

determine a valid conclusion for an argument.
122
Example 5 – Use an Euler Diagram to Determine a Conclusion for an Argument
Use an Euler diagram and all of the premises in the

following argument to determine a valid conclusion for the
argument.
Solution:
The first premise indicates that the set of Ms is a subset of
the set of Ns. The second premise indicates that the set of
Ns and the set of Ps are disjoint sets.
123
The following Euler diagram illustrates these set

relationships. An examination of the Euler diagram allows
us to conclude that no Ms are Ps.
124

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“Is the test today?” is a question.

b. The sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a

c. You may not know whether 99 + 2 is a prime number;

d. x + 1 = 5 is a statement. It is known as an open

Connecting simple statements with words and phrases

It is composed of the two simple statements, “I will attend

George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r, and s to

Logic Connectives and Symbols

The negation of the statement “Today is Friday.” is the

Write the negation of each statement.

a. Ellie Goulding is an opera singer.

b. The dog needs to be fed.

We will often find it useful to write compound statements in

Consider the following simple statements.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

In the next example, we translate symbolic statements into

Consider the following statements.

p: The game will be played in Atlanta.

Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

b. The game will be shown on ESPN and the Mets are

If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then

Table 5.2 illustrates the use of parentheses to indicate

If a compound statement is written as an English sentence,

If a statement in symbolic form is written as an English

Let p, q, and r represent the following.

a. Write as an English sentence.

Thus the translation is: If you get a promotion and complete

Because the not p and the not r statements are both to

Thus the translation is:

If you order cake and ice cream in a restaurant, the waiter

The truth table at the right

Any disjunction is true if p is true or q is true or both

Determine whether each statement is true or false.

In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are

Whatever the negation is, we know it must be a true

The negation is “Some doctors write in a legible manner.”

Quantified Statements and Their Negations

Write the negation of each of the following statements.

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If the given statement involves only two simple statements,

Standard truth table form for a given statement that

Now use the truth values from the ~p and q columns to

Negate the truth values in the column to produce

As our last step, we form the disjunction of

b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that when p is

Standard truth table form for a statement that

In Example 3 we use an alternative procedure to construct

Construct a truth table for .

In each column, enter the truth values for the statements

Step 2: Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to

Step 3: Use the truth values in the columns 1 and 5 to

The notation p  q is used to indicate that the statements p

Show that and are equivalent statements.

De Morgan’s laws can be used to restate certain English

Thus a sentence that is equivalent to the original sentence

A self-contradiction is a statement that is always false.

Show that is a tautology.

Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to determine the

Use the truth values in columns 1 and 4 to determine the

Column 5 of the table shows that is always true.