UNIT 5

ENERGY, ECONOMIC AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF
POWER PLANTS
POLLUTION AND POLLUTION CONTROL
TECHNOLOGIES FOR THERMAL
POWER PLANT
Air or Gaseous Pollution by Thermal Power Plants
• Coal fired thermal power plants are one of the
main elements for atmospheric pollution and
greenhouse gases.
• Those emissions are classified into three different
types.
(i) gaseous emissions such as C02, CO, sulphur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NOx) lead to
global warming and acid rain.
(ii) Particulate emissions are fine dust particles
which are emanated from stacks of power plants
lead to health hazard.
(iii) Trace elements are mercury, cadmium and lead
which are also health hazards.
Pollutant Effects

On Man: Suffocation, irritation of throat, eyes,

respiratory, asthma
and lung cancer.
SO2 On vegetation: Destruction of sensitive crops and
reduced yield.
On Materials: Corrosion
NO2 in the presence of hydrocarbon (HC) and sunlight
causes
NO photochemical smog containing 02 and peroxy
acetylnitrate as Los
Angeles smog.
On Man: Irritation, bronchitis and Oedema of lungs.
On Man: Irritation, diseases of bone, mottling of teeth
and
H2S respiration disease.
On vegetation: Destruction of crops.
On Animals: Fluorosis in cattle graxing.
 Pollutant Effects

CO on Man: Poisoning cardiovascular diseases increase the

accident liability.

Particulates On Man: Respiratory diseases such as silicosis (cough,

(Dust, fume, cold) asbestosis
mist and soot
(0.1 – 10µ size) On Material: Soiling and corrosion.
Particulate Emission by Thermal Power Plants
• Particulate matter (PM) considered as a source of
air pollution constitutes fly ash.
• The fine particles of fly ash reach the pulmonary
region of the lungs and remain there for long
periods of time; they behave like cumulative
poisons.
• The submicron particles enter deeper into the
lungs and are deposited on the alveolar walls.
• The residual particles being silica (40— 73%) cause
silicosis.
• All the heavy metals (Ni, Cd, Sb, As, Cr, Pb, etc.)
generally found in fly ash are toxic in nature,
Pollution Control Methods for Thermal Power Plants
(i) control of C02:

Control measures:
- to reduce overall air emissions.

(i) Economically available cleanest fuel should be used.

(ii) When burning coal, more care should be given to high-heat-
content, low-ash and low-sulphur coal.
(iii) Coal washing should be done to reduce the ash content
especially for high ash coal.
(iv) The selection of the best technology is to choose the fuel to
balance the environmental and economic benefits.
(v) Stack heights should be designed in such a way to avoid
excessive ground level concentrations and minimize impacts.
(vi) Use of combined heat and power plants will achieve the
improved efficiency than conventional thermal power plants.
(ii) Control of Sulphur oxides:
• The prevention of SO2 emission into the
atmosphere is very important as it is very harmful.
• There are two basic approaches to the problem.
1. Removal of sulphur compound from the fuel
before burning, and
2. Removal of SO2 from flue gases.
• Normally, the solid fuels contain sulphur in the
following forms.
1. inclusion of ferrites (FeS2).
2. Sulphur in molecules of organic mass of fuel.
3. Sulphate sulphur.
• The methods which are used to reduce the
quantity of sulphur are listed below.
1. Desulphurisation of fuels.
2. Use of low sulphur fuels.
3. Use of tall stacks
4. Flue gas cleaning.
(i) Desulphurisation of fuels:
• The process of reducing sulphur in the fuel is
called desulphurisation process.
• In this process, the methods used for removing
the sulphur from the coal are as follows.
1. Froth flotation
2. Chemical treatment
3. Magnetic separation.
• In the front flotation process, the coal is
suspended in water through which air is bubbled
and bubbles tend to attach themselves to the coal
particles and the mineral water falls to the bottom.
• The sulphur from liquid petroleum fuels is
removed by the chemical reaction with hydrogen
gas. The sulphur is converted into hydrogen
sulphide which is then removed,
• In a chemical treatment, coal is leached with an
aqueous solution of Ferric sulphate at the
temperature range of 90-130°C.
• In a magnetic separation, the finely crushed coal is
passed through a strong magnetic field. The
magnetic separation is used to remove ferrite
(FeS2) from coal.
(ii)Use of low sulphur coals:
The use of low sulphur coals to the furnace is
used to control S02 emissions.
(iii) Use of tall stacks:
Tall stacks are used to disperse flue gases over
large area and prevent SO2 air pollution.
(iv) Flue gas cleaning:
There are three methods used to clean S02 from
flue gases.
(a) Wet scrubbing
(b) Catalytic oxidation
(c) Solid absorbent.
(a) Wet scrubbing:
• In this method, the wet scrubber is used. The wet scrubber is also called wet
flue gas desulphurisation system.
Working principle:
• The system uses lime stone in the form of aqueous slurry.
• The slurry is brought in contact with the flue gas which absorbs SO2 in it.
• In this, the exhaust gas SO2 is absorbed and it is chemically reacted with
water and limestone forms products and the products are sent from the
scrubber to tank.
• The chemical reaction takes place in the reaction tank,
• The make-tip slurry is added to the reaction tank and the scrubbing liquid is
come back to the scrubber.
• The water thickener receives a mixture of 5-15% suspended solids in water
and removed.
• The reaction takes place in a reaction tank.
• These types of scrubbers are used to remove about 90% of SO2 from flue
gases.
(iii) Control of NO2:
(a) Reduction of temperature in the combustion
zone:
• It is done by adjusting the combustion
conditions and it uses low nitrogen fuels.
• The disadvantage of the system is high
combustion process will produce less CO but
the higher temperature also leads to the
formation of Nitric Oxide (NO).
• So, it is very important to adjust the
combustion temperature for the production of
less NO and CO.
(b)Reduction of residence time in combustion zone:
• By reducing the time taken by the combustion products
in the combustion process, it will reduce NOx.
• The minimum amount of CO2. SO2 and hydrocarbons are
also produced in this method.
• By this method, is reduced to 150- 200 ppm.
(c) Increase in equivalence ratio in the combustion zone:
• By carrying out the combustion using equivalence ratio
of 1.6 to 1.8, amount of NOx can be reduced
 Few other suggestions to reduce NO are listed below.
(i) Low NO burners should be used to modify the
combustion system including water injection or Low
Excess Air (LEA) firing.
(ii) Additional NOx controls such as a selective catalytic
reduction (SCR) system should be used for pulverized
coal-fired and oil-fired.
(iv) Control of particulate matter:
• Airborne particulates should be removed from
a polluted airstream with the help of physical
processes.
• Common types of equipment for collecting fine
particulates include cyclone separator,
scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and
baghouse filters.
• Once these particles are collected and they
should be removed because they will adhere to
each other.
WASTE DISPOSAL OPTIONS FOR THERMAL POWER PLANT

(i) Flyash disposal in ash ponds:

• the flyash is disposed off using either dry or wet disposal scheme.
• In dry disposal, the flyash is transported by truck, chute or
conveyor at the site and disposed off by constructing a dry
embankment (dyke).
• In wet disposal, the flyash is transported as slurry through pipe and
disposed off in impoundment called “ash pond”.
• Most of the power plants in India use wet disposal system, and
when the lagoons are full, four basic options are available
(a) Constructing new lagoons using conventional constructional material,
(b) Hauling of flyash from the existing lagoons to another disposal site,
(c) Raising the existing dyke using conventional constructional material,
and
(d) Raising the dyke using fly ash excavated from the lagoon (“ash dyke”).
• The option of raising the existing dyke is very cost effective because
any fly ash used for constructing dyke would, in addition to saving the
earth filling cost, enhance disposal capacity of lagoon.
The constructional methods for an ash dyke can
be grouped into three broad categories:
(a) Upstream method,
(b) Downstream method and
(c) Centerline method.
(ii) Treatment of wastewater of steam power plant:

• If the waste water from the power plant is not properly handled, it will pollute the
water basin.
• Various types of waste water collected from the steam power plant are given below.
 Waste water from water treatment plants.
 Water from hydraulic ash disposal system.
 Rainwater collected on the territory of power plant.
 Cooling waters used in power plants.
• The waste water from water treatment plants contains various metal salts, acids an
alkalis which may affect the water basin.
• Ensure that the waste water of hydraulic ash disposal system is not having any
contaminations before it goes to the water basin.
• The cooling water plant carries an enormous amount of heat. This heat will affect the
water basin. So, the heat to be reduced before it goes to the basin.
• The water purification is done by the following methods.
1. Filtering
2. Flotation
3. Centrifuging
4. Coagulation
5. Setting and clarifying
6. Bio-chemical methods.
POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES INCLUDING WASTE DISPOSAL OPTIONS FOR
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

• The nuclear power generation poses mainly two problems as follows.

(i) The management of radioactive waste, and
(ii) The danger passed in case of accident is very high and long standing.

• The radioactive emission during the operation of the power plant is

negligible but the emission intensity is very high which comes out from
wastes.
• They emit large quantities of γ rays which are very danger for living
matters.
• The radioactive waste coming out of 400 MW power plant would be
equal to 100 tons of radium daily. This much of radioactive waste
disposed to the atmosphere would kill all living organisms within the
area of about 100 square kilometers.
• Therefore, safe disposal of nuclear waste is a major problem and it is
very much essential.
Types of Nuclear Wastes
The nuclear wastes are classified as follows.
(i) On the basis of half-life time
(a) Fission products
(b) Actinides
(c) The neutron activation products.
(ii) On the basis of the intensity of radiation
(a) Low level waste
(b) Medium level waste
(c) High level waste.
1. Fission products:
• The wastes produced from reactor operations include fission products
and Plutonium.
• The half-lives of most of the fission products are 30 years or less.
• Their toxic lifetime is in the order of 500 years to 1000 years.
• Most of the fission products are initially radioactive and decay with
the emission of βand γ-rays.
2. Actinides:
• Actinides are produced in nuclear reactors as a result of neutron
capture by Uranium.
• The most important is Plutonium.
• The other actinides are neptunium, americium and curium.
• The actinides decay mainly by emission of α-particles until a stable
isotope of load is formed.
• α-particles can be easily stopped. Therefore, actinides do not require
thick shielding.
• However, α--particles are very energetic and toxic if inhaled as dusts.
3. Neutron activation products:
• These are produced when fast neutrons are absorbed by
structural materials in reactors as coolant, fuel cladding
etc.
• These products decay with the emissions of β and γ
radiations.
4. Low level wastes:
• Low level wastes contain less than 10 nanocuries per
gram of trans uranium contaminants.
• They have low but potentially hazardous concentration
of radioactive materials.
• Low level wastes are produced in almost all activities
such as power generation, medical, Industrial etc.
• They involve with radioactive materials.
• They require little or no shielding and they are usually
disposed off in liquid form through shallow land burial.
5. Medium level wastes:
• Medium level wastes contain more than 10 nanocuries but they are
less than 100 nanocuries per gram of trans uranium contaminants.
• These wastes are mainly contaminated with neutron activation
product isotopes.
6. High level wastes:
• The high level wastes contain more than 100 nanocuries per gram of
trans uranium contaminants.
• These are generated by reprocessing of spent fuel.
• The spent fuel is withdrawn from the reactor and placed in a water
pond. The heat is removed from the water pond.
• The pond wastes are continually treated to remove activity due to
release of fuel from defective cladding.
• The spent fuel is then transferred to the reprocessing plant where the
cladding contains the fuel to be removed and the fuel is dissolved in
nitric acid.
• U235 and Pu239 are then removed around 99% non-volatile fission
products behind in solution known as “highly active liquid waste”.
NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL
Disposal of Low Level Solid Waste
• Low level solid waste requires little or no
shielding.
• It is usually disposed off by keeping it in a steel
or concrete tank.
• These tanks are buried either few meters
below the soil or kept at the bed of the Ocean
Disposal of Medium Level Solid Wastes
• Medium level wastes are mainly contaminated
with neutron activation product isotopes.
• They are incorporated into cement cylinders.
• Cement is non-combustible material and it
provides shielding against the external
exposure.
• Cement is also having the ability of resistance
to reach by ground water.
Disposal of High Level Wastes
• Spent fuel from the nuclear reactor can either be stored
directly or reprocessed.
• The storage system avoids the cost and hazards
associated with a reprocessing plant.
• The second method utilizes reprocessing of unused
uranium and converted into Plutonium and other
radioisotopes for the use in wide variety of services such
as isotope generators, medicine, agriculture and
industry.
• Reprocessing of the spent fuel is done by dissolving it in
nitric acid and then removing the converted Plutonium
and unspent uranium by solvent extraction.
• The remaining solution contains more than 99.99% of
the non-volatile fission products plus some constituents
of the cladding of fuel elements, traces of plutonium and
Uranium.
• The remaining solution consists of high level wastes. I
• t is usually concentrated by evaporation.
• It is then stored as an aqueous nitric acid solution usually
in high integrity stainless steel tanks.
• However, the permanent storage in liquid form requires
continuous supervision and tank replacement over an
indefinite period of time.
• The conversion of the liquid wastes to a solid form is
very important.
• It avoids leakages.
• It requires less supervision and it is more suitable for
final disposal.
• This solid product should maintain its mechanical
strength. Ideally, it should have a low leak rate.
• Glasses and ceramics are now considered to be most
suitable forms for this final disposal.
Underground Disposal of High Level Waste
• A cavity is excavated 511m depth in salt mine and
cylinders are stored in this cavity.
• It has a special advantage that the salt is strong
absorber of radioactive emissions and it has good
thermal conducting property which helps to keep
the temperature within the acceptable limit.
• The solidified waste is placed in canisters which are
stored in holes drilled in rock salt with a spacing of
about 10 m to allow for the efficient dissipation of
energy without exceeding the permissible
temperature limits of salt in canisters.
• Each canister will require about 100 m3 of salt for
cooling.
Nuclear Waste Gas Disposal
• The gaseous wastes problem arises from the possibility
of ruptures in the fuel element cladding.
• It might release the gaseous products from fission.
• A primary sodium tank consists of radioactive detector
sensor which senses the radioactivity.
• If excess radioactivity is detected, this gas will be
pumped into a radioactive storage tank.
• It will also activate valves to shut the gas stream being
vented into a compressor suction tank.
• From the suction tank, the compressor forces this gas
into a storage tank where it can undergo the radioactive
decay.
• When the radioactivity in the tank comes sufficiently
low, this gas may be bled from the storage tank and it is
discharged through the vent line.
Important Terms and Definitions
1. Connected load:
It is the combined continuous rating of all receiving apparatus on
consumer’s premises.
If a consumer has connections for 3 lamps of 40W each and
power point of 500W for refrigerator and TV consuming 60 W then
the total connected load of the consumer = 3 x 40)+500+60=680W.
2. Demand
It is the load which is drawn from the source of supply at the
receiving terminals averaged over a suitable and specified interval of
time.
3. Maximum demand or Peak toad:
It is the maximum load which is used by a consumer during a given
period.
It is determined by the measurement according to specifications
over a prescribed interval o f time. It can be less than or equal to the
connected load. But generally, the actual maximum demand is less
than the connected load because all loads never run in full load at the
same time.
4. Demand factor:
It is the ratio of actual maximum demand of the system to
the total connected demand of the system.

5 Load factor:
It is the ratio of the average load over a given time interval
to the peak load during the same time interval.

Load factor is always less than unity. Higher is the load

factor, lesser will be the cost of power generation per unit
for the same maximum demand.
6. Capacity factor or plant capacity factor:
It is the ratio of actual energy produced in kilowatt
hours (kWh) to the maximum possible energy
which could have been produced during the same
period.

where E = Energy produced in kWh

C = Capacity of the plant in kW
t = Total number of hours in given period.
If the rated capacity of the plant is equal to the peak
load, then the load factor and capacity factor will
be numerically equal.
7. Utilisation factor:
It is the ratio of maximum load to the rated
capacity of the plant.

8. Reserve factor:
It is the ratio of load factor to the capacity
factor.
9. Diversity factor:
It is defined as the ratio of sum of individual maximum demand
to the actual peak load of the system.

10. Plant use factor:

It is the ratio of energy produced in a given time to the
maximum possible energy that could have been produced
during the actual number of hours the plant was in operation.
11. Dump power:
This term is used in hydroelectric power plants. It shows the power in excess
of the load requirements.
12. Firm power:
It is the power which should always be available even under emergency
conditions.
13. Prime power:
The power may be mechanical power, hydraulic power or thermal power
which is always available for the conversion into electric power.
14. Base load and Peak load power plants:
• The base load is the load below which the demand never falls and at the
same time, it is 100% supplied.
• The power plants used to supply base loads are called base load power
plants.
• The base load power plants are loaded heavily.
• The operating cost of such plants very important.
• A high capital cost is permissible if low operating cost can be maintained.
• Hydroelectric and nuclear power plants are usually classified as base load
power plants.
• The peak load is the load which occurs at the top portion
of the load curve.
• The power plants which are used to supply peak loads
are called peak load power plants.
• The peaking load occurs around 15% of the time.
• The peak load power plants are of smaller capacity, run
for a shorter period in the year and work at low load
factors,
• Peak load power plants should be capable of quick
starting.
• Since the peak load plants are used only for a small
fraction of time, the fuel cost is not a major importance.
• Minimum capital cost should be the criterion.
• Diesel power plants are usually classified as peak load
power plants.
TARIFF DEFINITION:
The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff.
 Cost of Producing Electricity depends upon the magnitude of Electricity consumed
by load.
 Tariff fixation has to be given to different types of consumers (e.g., industrial,
domestic and commercial).
 Tariff fixing for different consumers is more complicated.

Objectives of tariff.
Electrical energy is sold at such a rate so that it not only returns the cost but also earns
reasonable profit. Tariff should include the following objectives:
 Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station.
 Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and distribution
systems.
 Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy
 A suitable profit on the capital investment.

Characteristics of a Tariff:
(i) Proper return:
 The total receipts from the consumers must be equal to the cost of producing and
supplying electrical energy plus reasonable profit.
 This will enable the electric supply company to ensure continuous and reliable
service to the consumers.

(ii) Fairness:
 The tariff must be fair so that different types of consumers are satisfied with the
rate of charge of electrical energy.
 A big consumer should be charged at a lower rate than a small consumer with
fixed charges and thus reducing overall production cost of electrical energy.
  A consumer whose load conditions do not deviate much from the non-variable
load should be charged at a lower rate than big consumers with variable load.

(iii) Simplicity:
 The tariff should be simple so that an ordinary consumer can easily understand it.
 A complicated tariff may cause an opposition from the public which is generally
distrustful of supply companies.

(iv) Reasonable profit:

 The profit element in the tariff should be reasonable.
 An electric supply company is a public utility company and generally enjoys the
benefits of monopoly.
 The investment is relatively safe due to non-competition in the market and the
profit is to be restricted to 8% or so per annum.

(v) Attractive:
 The tariff should be attractive so that a large number of consumers are encouraged
to use electrical energy.
 Efforts should be made to fix the tariff in such a way so that consumers can pay
easily.
Types of Tariff:
There are several types of tariff.
1. Simple Tariff
2. Flat rate Tariff
3. Block rate Tariff
4. Two part Tariff
5. Maximum demand tariff
6. Power Factor Tariff
7. Three part Tariff

1. Simple tariff:
When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is called a simple
tariff or uniform rate tariff.

Advantages of Simple Tariff:

 In simple tariff, the cost does not vary with increase or decrease in number of units
consumed.
 The consumption of electrical energy at the consumer terminals is recorded by
means of an energy meter.
 This is the simplest of all tariffs and is easily understood by the consumers.
Disadvantages of Simple Tariff:
 Every consumer has to pay equally for the fixed charges irrespective of load
variation.
 The cost per unit delivered is high.
 (iii) It does not encourage the use of electricity.

1. Flat rate tariff:

When different types of consumers are charged at different uniform per unit rates,
it is called a flat rate tariff.
 In this type of tariff, the consumers are grouped into different classes and each
class of consumers is charged at a different uniform rate.
 The different classes of consumers are made taking into account their diversity and
load factors.
Advantages of Flat rate tariff:
 This tariff is more benefit to different types of consumers
 Flat rate tariff is quite simple in calculations.
Disadvantages of Flat rate tariff:
 Separate meters are required for lighting load, power load etc.
 The application of such a tariff is expensive and complicated.
 A particular class of consumers is charged at the same rate irrespective of the
magnitude of energy consumed.

2. Block rate tariff.

When a given block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the succeeding
blocks of energy are charged at progressively reduced rates, it is called a block rate tariff.

 The energy consumption is divided into blocks and the price per unit is fixed in
each block.
 The price per unit in the first block is the highest and it is progressively reduced
for the succeeding blocks of energy.
 For example, the first 30 units may be charged at the rate of 60 paise per unit; the
next 25 units at the rate of 55 paise per unit and the remaining additional units
may be charged at the rate of 30 paise per unit.

Advantages of Block rate Tariff:

 The consumer gets an incentive to consume more electrical energy.
 This increases the load factor of the system and hence the cost of generation is
reduced.
Disadvantages of Block rate Tariff:
 It lacks a measure of the consumer demand.
 This type of tariff is being used for majority of residential and small commercial
consumers.

1. Two-part tariff:
When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum demand of
the consumer and the units consumed, it is called a two-part tariff.
 In two-part tariff, the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into two
components viz., fixed charges and running charges.
 The fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer while the
running charges depend upon the number of units consumed by the consumer.
 Thus, the consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW of maximum demand
plus a certain amount per kWh of energy consumed i.e.
Total charges = Rs (b × kW + c × kWh)
where, b = charge per kW of maximum demand
c = charge per kWh of energy consumed
 This type of tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have
appreciable maximum demand.

Advantages of two part Tariff:

 It is easily understood by the consumers.
It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the
consumer.
 It is independent of the units consumed.
Disadvantages two part Tariff:
 The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of energy consumed
 There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.

2. Maximum demand tariff.

It is similar to two-part tariff with the only difference that the maximum demand is
actually measured by installing maximum demand meter in the premises of the
consumer.
Advantages of Maximum demand tariff:
 The maximum demand is assessed merely on the basis of the rateable value.
 This type of tariff is mostly applied to big consumers.
Disadvantages of Maximum demand tariff:
 It is not suitable for a small consumer.
 Separate maximum demand meter is required.
1. Power factor tariff:
The tariff in which power factor of the consumer load is taken into consideration is
known as power factor tariff.
 A low power factor increases the rating of station equipment and line losses.
 A consumer having low power factor must be penalized.
The following are the important types of power factor tariff:
(i) kVA maximum demand tariff :
 It is a modified form of two-part tariff.
 In this case, the fixed charges are made on the basis of maximum demand in kVA
and not in kW.
 A low power factor consumer has to contribute more towards the fixed charges.

(ii) Sliding scale tariff :

 This is also known as average power factor tariff.
 In this case, an average power factor, say 0·8 lagging, is taken as the reference.
 If the power factor of the consumer falls below this factor, suitable additional
charges are made.
 If the power factor is above the reference, a discount is allowed to the consumer.

(iii) kW and kVAR tariff:

 In this type, both active power (kW) and reactive power (kVAR) supplied are
charged separately.
 A consumer having low power factor will draw more reactive power and hence
shall have to pay more charges.

2. Three-part tariff:
When the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into three parts viz.,
fixed charge, semi-fixed charge and running charge, it is known as a three-part tariff.

Total charge = Rs (a + b × kW + c × kWh)

Where, a = fixed charge made during each billing period.
b = charge per kW of maximum demand,
c = charge per kWh of energy consumed.
 It may be seen that by adding fixed charge to two-part tariff, it becomes three-part
tariff.
 The principal objection of this type of tariff is that the charges are split into three
components.