• The process of electrically communicating binary

information between two or more points.

• Often referred to as computer communications

due to the ever increasing use of computer and
their support equipment.
Organizations Standards of Data Communications
International Standards Organization
(ISO)
• Sets the rules and standards for graphics, and
document exchange

Consultative Committee for International

Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT)
• Consists of government authorities and representatives
of UN to develop rules and standards for telephony and
telegraphy

American National Standards Institute

(ANSI)
• US representative to ISO
Organizations Standards of Data Communications

Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers (IEEE)

Electronics Industries Association (EIA)

Standards Council of Canada (SCC)

Advantages of Digital Signals over Analog Signals
Disadvantages of Digital Signals
DTE DCE DCE DTE
 Essential Data Communication System
Components
1. DATA TERMINAL EQUIPMENT
 device acting as a source and data sink or
both
i. Source or Transmitter
ii. Receiver or Sink
 Essential Data Communication System
Components
2. TRANSMISSION PATH / CHANNEL / MEDIUM
a. Bounded Medium
 the signals are confined to the medium and
do not leave it except for small leakage
amount
 Bounded Medium
i. Pair of Wire
-Made up of wire pairs stretched
between telephone sets
ii. Coaxial cable
-Used to transmit higher
frequency than pair of wire
iii. Submarine Cable
-Used to overcome long spacing
between amplifiers and upper
frequency at which the cables
can be operated lower than
SUBMARINE
land cable CABLE
 Bounded Medium
iv. Waveguides
- Metal tubes that allow
high frequency radio
waves to travel

v. Fiber optic cables

- Waveguide for light
frequencies
 Unbounded Medium
i. Ground or Surface Waves
ii. Space or Tropospheric
Waves
iii. Sky or Ionospheric
Waves
 Essential Data Communication System
Components
3. DATA COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT (DCE)
> devices that provide functions required to
establish, maintain and terminate a data
transmission connection.
 Information Capacity
• Represents the number of independent
symbols that can be carried through the
system in the given unit of time
• It is expressed in bits per second, bps

A. Shannon’s Theorem on Information

B. Nyquist Theorem
C. Hartley’s Law for Noiseless Channel
D. Shannon-Hartley Law for a Noisy Channel
A. Shannon’s Theorem on Information
• The Shannon theorem states that given a
noisy channel with channel capacity C
and information transmitted at a rate R,
then if there exist codes that allow the
probability of error at the receiver to be
made arbitrarily small, this means that, CLAUDE
SHANNON
theoretically, it is possible to transmit
information nearly without error at any
rate below a limiting rate, C.
A. Shannon’s Theorem on Information
• Source coding is a mapping from (a
sequence of) symbols from an
information source to a sequence of
alphabet symbols (usually bits) such that
the source symbols can be exactly
recovered from the binary bits (lossless CLAUDE
SHANNON
source coding) or recovered within some
distortion (lossy source coding). This is
the concept behind data compression.
 B. Nyquist Theorem

HARRY NYQUIST
• The highest sampling frequency required to
propagate a signal is twice its input frequency

fs = 2fin
 C. Hartley’s law for Noiseless Channel
• Information capacity is a linear function of bandwidth and
transmission time and is directly proportional to both
• Information capacity is proportional to the product of the
bandwidth and transmission time

C = 2δlog2X
C = kδfT

Where: C = channel capacity

X = number of coding levels RALPH
HARTLEY
δf = channel bandwidth
T = transmission time
 Shannon-Hartley Law for a Noisy Channel

C = δf log2(1 + S/N)

Where: S/N = signal-to-noise ratio

S/N = (2(C/ δf) – 1)
 Net Data Throughput (NDT)
• Usually expressed in either characters per
second or bps.
• Number of usable data characters or bits that
are received per second and does not count
characters that have to be retransmitted due to
errors, characters used for control purposes and
so on.
 Baud
• Named after the French Data Communication
pioneer, Emile Baudot.

• The number of signal events or signal elements

passing a point on the line per second.

> If each signal event or element, such as

change from 0 to 10 volts, represents one bit,
the baud rate is equal to the bit rate.
> If each signal element can represent a dibit,
the bit rate is equal to twice the baud rate.
Example:
If 1600 signals events occur each second, but
through coding techniques, each signal
element represents 3 bits, what is the baud
rate? Bit rate?
 Data Network Topology
• Concerns with the physical configuration of the
devices and the cable that it connects. It is the
architecture or physical layout of the network.

DATA
NETWORK
TOPOLOGY

BUS TREE STAR RING MESH

TOPOLOGY TOPOLOGY TOPOLOGY TOPOLOGY TOPOLOGY
 Data Network Topology
• BUS TOPOLOGY
> Consists of nodes strung together in series with each
node connected to a long cable or bus; many nodes
can tap into the bus and begin communication with
all other nodes on that cable segment.
 Data Network Topology
• TREE TOPOLOGY (Bus variation)
> Uses some form of wideband cable with drop-off
points as needed each drop is provided with the full
bandwidth or data rate of the cable.
 Data Network Topology
• STAR TOPOLGY
> Features a central
controller to which all
nodes are connected. All
transmissions from one
station to another pass
the central controller
which is responsible for
managing and controlling
all communication. The
central controller acts as
a switch.
 Data Network Topology
• RING TOPOLOGY
Bucket or token passing.
 Signals are transmitted
in a rotating fashion.
Tokens give stations the
“right to transmit”
messages.
 Data Network Topology
• MESH TOPOLOGY
> Signals pass through more than one path.
 Network Configuration
• Categorized and identify the point or number
of location.

1. Point-to-point
> each node in the network is connected to other
nodes by individual communication lines

2. Multipoint
> several nodes in the network will share a
communication link
> Sharing Device – a device that enables sharing
a single source (modem, MUX, or computer port)
among several devices
 Network Configuration
POINT-TO-POINT MULTIPOINT
 Data Communication Equipment /
Processing Hardware
• Device that provide the function required to
establish, maintain, and terminate a data
transmission connection
Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware
MODEM
• A device used to convert
serial digital data from a
transmitting terminal to a
signal suitable for
transmission over a
telephone channel, or to
reconvert the transmitted
signal to a serial digital
data for acceptance at
the receiving terminal.
Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware
MODEM PARAMETERS
Speed or bit rate (bps)

Transmission type – sync or async

Mode of transmission – simplex / half duplex

/full duplex

Type of line circuit – switched or leased line

Modem standard supported

 MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
• Refers to a technique of putting two or lower
speed transmission onto a single communication
line of higher capacity.
MULTIPLEXING
TECHNIQUES

TIME DIVISION FREQUENCY DIVISION

MULTIPLEXING MULTIPLEXING

SYNCHRONOUS / ASYNCHRONOUS /
STATICAL TDM STATISTICAL TDM
 Multiplexing Techniques
FREQUENCY
DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING

• Splits the available

bandwidth for a given
communication link into
a number of channels
equal to the number of
different devices being
multiplexed.
 Multiplexing Techniques
TIME
DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING

• Splits up the capacity of

the line by assigning
each user a particular
time slot, during which
its data is transmitted
over the communication
link.
 Multiplexing Techniques
2 Types of TDM’s
1. SYNCHRONOUS / STATICAL TDM
> high speed data is divided into frames where
each channel has a fixed number of timeslots. The
number of timeslots depends on the data speed of
the terminal.

2. ASYNCHRONOUS / STATISTICAL TDM

> instead of assigning a fixed number of timeslots
to each channel, the number of timeslots is
determined by how much of the total amount of
data to be transmitted each has. Instead of
transmitting empty timeslots, ATDM transmits
channel-number and data only from active
terminals.
 Open System Interconnect (OSI) Layer
• The OSI model was created by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO). It was
patterned after and is similar to the IBM layered
networking scheme, Systems Network
Architecture (SNA).

OSI Reference Model

• Provides a common basis for the coordination of
standards development for systems
interconnection, while allowing existing
standards to be placed into perspective within
the overall OSI Reference Model
SEVEN OSI LAYERS

APPLICATION LAYER

PRESENTATION LAYER

SESSION LAYER

TRANSPORT LAYER

NETWORK LAYER

DATA LINK LAYER

PHYSICAL LAYER
 Seven OSI Layers
1. PHYSICAL LAYER
• Responsible for the transmission of bit stream over a
communication channel.

• Transmits the unstructured raw bit stream over a

physical medium and describes the electrical, mechanical
and functional interface to the carrier.

• Performs transmission and reception on the network

medium.

• Functional, electrical, physical specifications.

 Seven OSI Layers
2. DATA LINK LAYER
• Provide error free transmission of information between two
end stations attached to the same physical cable.
• Manages the flow of the data bit stream in and out of each
network node.
• Transfers units of information to other end of physical link.
• Framing and synchronization.
• Error control and recovery.
• Message sequence control.
• Message acknowledgement.
• Link initialization and disconnection.
• Addressing
 Seven OSI Layers

3. NETWORK LAYER
• Controls the operation of the network or sub-network.

• Decides which physical pathway the data should take

based on the network conditions, priorities of service
and other factors.

• Switches and routes information to any node .

• Provides the means to establish, maintain and

terminate connections between systems
 Seven OSI Layers
4. TRANSPORT LAYER

• Forms the interface between the higher application-

oriented layers and the underlying network-
dependent protocol layers.

• Provides end-to-end data integrity and quality of

service.

• Allows end users to communicate oblivious to

network constraints imposed by the lower levels
 Seven OSI Layers
5. SESSION LAYER
• Provides the means for two application layer entities to
synchronize and manage their data exchange.

• Coordinates interaction between end-to-end application

processes.

• Sets up communication channels, manages the communication

and terminates the connections.

• Is the user’s true interface to the network.

• Handles the log-on / log-off functions and describes the

authentication procedures
 Seven OSI Layers
6. PRESENTATION LAYER
• Formats the data to be presented to the Application
Layer.

• Can be viewed as a translator for the network and

provides a common representation for data that can be
used between the application processes.

• Provides code conversion and data reformatting.

• Handles display functions, file formatting, code

conversion, and data compression and encryption.
 Seven OSI Layers

7. APPLICATION LAYER
• Serves as a window for the application process to access
the networking environment.

• Represents the services that directly support users and

application tasks.

• Selects appropriate service for applications (user interface).

• Contains recommendations for the specific user programs.

 Network Protocols

Are standards that allow computers to communicate

Define how computers should identify one another on a

network

Sets of rules that specify precisely how different parts

of the network interact to allow devices to communicate
with one another
A typical protocol defines the following:
How computers should identify one
another on a network

The form that the data should take in

transit

How the information should be

processed once it reaches its final
destination

Procedures for handling lost or

damaged transmission or packets
HANDSHAKING
 Exchange of predetermined signals between two devices
establishing a connection; usually a part of communication
protocols.

POLLING
 Permanent Master-Slave relationship
 The master controls the data flow by polling and selecting the
slaves
 All data are transmitted between the master and slaves selected
one at a time

CONTENTION
 Neither end of the data link has permanent control over the link
 To transmit data, a station must contend for the master status
 Station at the other end of the data link will then become a slave
 Data are transmitted from Master to Slave
 The master controls flow of data along the link
PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS
 PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS
i. Link Control
 Specifies the rules for data transfer between
two stations
a. Link Initialization – data link and stations at
both ends are in idle state when there is no
data exchange
b. Link Termination
c. Link Recovery
d. Relationship of stations
e. Mode of operation
 PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS
ii. Synchronization
 Data are sent in blocks or frames. The
beginning and end of each block must be
clearly identifiable

For character oriented protocol

- character synchronization
- message synchronization
For bit oriented protocol
- frame synchronization
 PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS
iii. Flow Control
 To ensure that the transmitter does not
overwhelm the receiver

a. Stop and Wait Scheme

 Half duplex operation

b. Sliding Window Scheme

 Full duplex operation

iv. Error Control

v. Addressing
 NETWORK BREADTH
A. Local Area Network (LAN)
 Collection of independent computers which
can communicate with one another over a
shared medium, usually confined to a small
geographical area, such as a single building or
a college campus.
 NETWORK BREADTH
B. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Are developed primarily by data carriers in
response to the demand to interconnect LAN’s
across metropolitan area.
 NETWORK BREADTH
C. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Essentially interconnected LAN’s and MAN’s,
they can be homogenous (like networks) but
are often heterogonous (different topologies).
It can span campuses, cities, or continents.
 Local Area Network (LAN)
• Are a special, high speed, dedicated network
that provides data communications capability
within an office or group of offices in a campus
environment.
• Provide a simple and cost effective means of
interconnecting data equipment on a single site,
permitting each user to communicate with any
other end to share central resources such as
printers and data stores.
 Local Area Network (LAN)
Applications:
1. Sharing resources
2. Quick communication
3. Sharing work documents
4. Sharing applications
 IEEE LAN Standard 802.3
• Defines rules for configuring an Ethernet as well
as specifying how elements in a network interact
with one another.

IEEE Standard 8 0 2.3

February
year 1980

> Ethernet was chosen in honor of the undefined

substance called ether through which it was once
thought electromagnetic radiation propagated.
 Types of Ethernet Media
1. Thick Wire or 10Base5
– Generally used to create large backbones
– A thick, hefty, coaxial cable which can support as
many as 100 nodes in a bus topology and a segment
can be up to 500 meters long
– 0.4 inch, RG11
– Ethernet segment < 500 m. each
– Transceivers attach workstations to the cable
– Distance between transceivers > 2.5 m.
– 1,024 stations per network
– Often called “Thick Net”
10BASE5
 Types of Ethernet Media
2. Thin Coax or 10Base2
– Is considerably thinner and more flexible than Thick
Wire, but it can support 30 nodes, each at least 0.5
m apart. Each segment must not be longer than 185
meters
– A thin coax segment is actually composed of many
lengths of cables, each with a BNC type connector
on both ends
– 0.2 inch RG58 ohm cable
– Thin Ethernet segment < 185 m. each
– Distance between T-connectors > 0.5 m
– 30 stations maximum per segment
– 10 Mbps data transmission
10BASE2
 Types of Ethernet Media
3. Unshielded Twisted Pair or 10BaseT
– Uses a star topology
– A computer is located at one end of the segment
and the other end is terminated in a central location
with a repeater or hub
– UTP segments are limited to 100 meters
– Each node is connected to a central point called Hub
– Problem node can be easily isolated
– Easy to add user or segment
– Maximum distance to network hub < 100m
10BASE-T
 Types of Ethernet Media
4. Fiber Optic or 10BaseFL
– Invaluable for situations where electronic emissions
and environmental hazards are concern
– Effectively insulate networking equipment since they
do not conduct electricity
– Allows segments up to 2 km long
10BASE-FL
 LAN Terms

repeater

hub
node

gateway

router

bridge
transceiver
 LAN Terms
1. NODE
– An active device connected to the network, such as
a computer or a piece of networking equipment like
a repeater, a bridge or a router
2. REPEATER
– Is relatively simple LAN devices which allow longer
transmission distances along a given LAN medium
and operate at the physical layer only
– Takes an incoming signal and regenerate it, boosting
its amplitude back to its original strength and
eliminating distortions
– Used not to interconnect dissimilar networks but to
connect individual network segments to form a
larger extended network
 LAN Terms
3. BRIDGES
– Connect separate Ethernets together
– Are used to interconnect physically distinct networks
4. TRANSCEIVER
– Is used to connect nodes to the various Ethernet
media
– Also known as Media Attachment Units (MAU’s),
attach to the Ethernet cable and provide an
Application User Interface (AUI), connector for the
computer
 LAN Terms
5. HUB
– Is a central connection point for cables radiating out
to multiple stations
– Also called Multiport repeaters or concentrator
6. ROUTER
– Its primary purpose is to find the best path from one
network to another and forward packets between
them
7. GATEWAY
– A LAN device which is used to interconnect networks
that may have entirely different architectures
 LAN Protocols
1. TCP / IP
– Used by UNIX systems
– Used by the Internet
– TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
– Guaranteed delivery, handles retransmission,
connection oriented
– IP (Internet Protocol)
– Takes care of routing, non-guaranteed delivery,
connectionless UNIX – a multitasking, multi-user
computer operating system
 LAN Protocols
2. DECNetTM
– Digital Equipment Corporation proprietary network
architecture
– Runs on point-to-point, X.25, and Ethernet networks
3. Apple Talk
– A communication protocol developed by Apple
Computer to allow networking between Macintoshes
4. LAT (Local Area Transport)
– A DEC proprietary network communication protocol
based on the idea of a relatively small, known
number of hosts on a local area network sending
small network packets at regular intervals
– Will not work on a WAN scale, as TCP / IP does
 LAN Architectures
1. PEER-TO-PEER LAN
– No single station is intended to control all LAN
operations or resources.
 LAN Architectures
2. CLIENT SERVER LAN
– One computer will have control of the network,
running the network operating system software.
 LAN Hardware
1. NETWORK ADAPTER BOARD
– Provides the physical and
electronic connection between
the computer and the network
– Provides the interface to the
I/O bus and to the LAN cable
2. CABLING
3. SERVERS NETWORK ADAPTER
BOARD
4. REPEATERS
5. HUBS AND CONCENTRATORS
 Servers
• FILE SERVER
– A network computer with a
large hard disk drive where
files or applications are saved
from the entire LAN

• DATA BASE SERVER

– Could be physically
implemented in the same
way as a file server, but with
a specific responsibility of
serving a data base
application and data base
files to the LAN
 Servers
• COMMUNICATION SERVER
– A networked PC or other
computer connected to one or
more communication devices
such as modem, multiplexer or
other transmission equipment

• PRINT SERVER
– A networked PC connected to
a printer
– Should be centrally located
where it can be easily shared
by a workgroup
BASEBAND TRANSMISSION
• A transmitting station uses the entire capacity or
bandwidth of transmission medium
• Each device gets its own turn to transmit
• Its advantage are lower components cost and
simplicity of installation and maintenance

BROADBAND TRANSMISSION
• Provides relatively higher capacity transmission
technique in which one cable can simultaneously
carry signals from several devices
• Have the benefit of being able to support many
stations over a long distance and to carry voice,
video, and data simultaneously but they are
expensive in very difficult to set up and test
Baseband Transmission
Broadband Transmission
 Available Networks
1. ETHERNET
– Strikes a good balance between speed, price and
ease of installation
– Wide acceptance into the computer marketplace
– Ability to support virtually all popular network
protocols
2. TOKEN RING
3. FDDI (FIBER DATA DISTRIBUTED INTERFACE)
4. CDDI (COPPER DATA DISTRIBUTED INTERFACE)
ETHERNET

FDDI

TOKEN
RING
 LAN Components
1. COMPUTERS
2. FILE SERVER
– A computer that centrally stores the data to be
shared
– It is where shared equipment (hard disk, printers,
modems) are connected
3. NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
– The software that runs on the file server and
provides the functions for data and equipment
sharing
 LAN Components
4. NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS
– Devices installed in a computer that provide the
physical connection to the LAN through the cabling
5. CABLES / TRANSMISSION MEDIA
6. EXTENSION DEVICES
– Devices like repeaters and bridges that extend the
range of the LAN
7. APPLICATION SOFTWARE
INTERNET
• A global computer network
that connects thousands of
networks together allowing
them to exchange files, sent
messages, download graphics
and text, and share other
resources.

ARPANET
• Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network
• Computer network which broke
information into small chunks
known as packets
 Internet Terms
 WORLD WIDE WEB
 A menu based search tool that
enables users to access the Internet
resources world wide while using
links embedded documents
 This linked documents allow users
to move easily from place to place
within the Internet in a nonlinear
fashion
 CYBERSPACE
 A term coined by William Gibson in
his fantasy novel, Neuromancer to
describe the “world” of computers
and the society that gathers around
them
 Internet Terms
 GOPHER
 A menu based program used to
explore and access the Internet
resources

 NETSCAPE NAVIGATOR
 Essentially a tool or program
that makes Internet surfing a
lot easier
 Capable of showing graphics
and movies, producing audio or
music and best of all, you can
download it all for free, if the
author of the webpage permits
you to do so
 Internet Terms
 TELNET
A program that allows
Internet “nodes” to log-in
and access program and
other data on another
Internet node
Enables you to connect
outside your server, for
example, outside the
country
 MINIMUM SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
386 or better CPU’s

At least 40 MB free hard disk space

At least 8 MB RAM

Video Graphics Adapter monitor

Modem

Windows 3.1 or higher

Electronic Mail (E-Mail)
 Electronic Mail (E-Mail)
• Send messages back and forth between
computers that are electronically connected
Procedure
1. User types a message onto the computer while
signed on the Internet or an online service.
Message may include:
a. Text
b. Graphics
c. Files
d. Multimedia
2. User then tells the system where to send the
message.
3. The message is sent over the Internet until it
reaches its final destination.
Functions of E-mail
1. Creation
2. Sending
3. Reception
4. Storage

E-mail Address Basic Structure

1. Username
2. Organization’s name
3. Domain
4. Suffix
 E-mail Address Basic Structure
Format: Username@organization.[domain].suffix

Domain could be:

com – commercial
edu – educational
net – network
org – organization
mil – military
gov – government
ngo – non-governmental organization
Public Data Network
• A switched data communication network similar
to the PSTN except that a PDN is designed for
transferring data only.
• Combines VAN’s and packet switching network.

VAN – Value Added Network

• Adds value to the services or facilities provided
by a common carrier to provide new types of
communications services
 PACKET SWITCHING
• Involves dividing data messages into small bundles of
information and transmitting them thru communications
network to their intended destination.
• Is a switching technique wherein the message is divided
into blocks called packets preceded and followed by
control characters which allow the network to decide on
the final destination. Switching is done on a packet-by-
packet basis.
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING (TRANSPARENT SWITCH)
• Used for making a standard telephone call on the PSTN.
• A switching technique wherein a direct connection has to
be set up through the network as in a telephone
exchange but in a higher speed to avoid long delays.
Switching is done on a call-by-call basis.
 MESSAGE SWITCHING (TRANSACTIONAL SWITCH)
• A form with store and forward network
• Data are transmitted into the network and stored in a
switch
• The network transfer the data from switch to switch
when it is convenient to do so
 X.25
• Defines the structures contents and sequencing
procedures for the transmission of data among
DTE, DCE and a public data network.
X.25 Packet Format
1. Call request packet
2. Data transfer packet
3. Call clearing

Note: An X.25 packet contains 5 bytes of

header and 128 bytes of user data.
 X.25 Operation
1. Data is taken from the source device and is stored for processing and to make
retransmission possible.
2. Packet envelope is then placed around the data. This envelope contains the address
of the destination and information for error detection.
3. Based on the packet envelope information, the network makes a determination as
to where the data should now be sent.
4. A frame envelope is placed around the packet envelope which is responsible for
ensuring data integrity across a single physical line.
5. The data is then sent, via the physical layer, over the appropriate copper or fiber or
satellite facility to the next node in the network
6. In the next node, the data is once again stored.
7. It is examined for errors. If error is found, the faulty data can be retransmitted
from the previous node, where it was stored before transmission.
8. If no error is found, the network strip off the frame envelope and look at the packet
within the frame to determine the destination of this data.
9. If necessary, it will then route it to yet another node. This process will continue
until the ultimate destination node is reached.
10. When the final node is reached, all envelopes are examined, and then removed,
and the data is delivered to the endpoint device.
 X.25 Layers
1. Link layer (frame level)
2. Network layer (packet level)
3. Physical layer
 PAD – Packet Assembler / Disassembler
Assembles and disassembles data packets for
X.25 network communications
 VIRTUAL CIRCUIT
• Permit communications between distinct network
elements through any number of intermediate node
without the dedication of portion of the physical circuits.
Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC)
• Logically equivalent to a 2-point dedicated
private line circuit except that it is slower

Switched Virtual Circuit

• Logically equivalent to making a telephone call
thru the DDD network except that no end-to-end
connector is made
• A one to many arrangement
• A virtual circuit set up on a call-by-call basis
 FRAME RELAY
• A wide area network
technology that uses
fast packet switching
technique to meet the
demands of high speed
bursty traffic.
• A technique used in
data transport network
where error checking is
performed end-to-end
instead of on each
individual link.
Frame Relay Network
 Frame Relay Operation
1. In frame relay technology, an intelligent endpoint, such as LAN, will
send its data to the link layer.
2. No more storing of data before sending to another node. When each
node receives the beginning of a frame, it may immediately transmit
that frame to the next node without waiting for the whole frame to be
received and stored, therefore, a much faster transmission and
switching.
3. An envelope (specifically, LAPD frame) is added. Alternatively, the
intelligent endpoint may send the data to the network already
encapsulated in the LAPD frame.
4. The LAPD frame contains routing information, eliminating the need for
the network to examine level three. Instead, the frame itself is
examined for a destination and the routing takes place at the
network’s frame layer.
5. No error correction in the frame relay nodes because frame relay relies
on low bit error rate lines to minimize errors, and on intelligent
endpoints running an end-to-end protocol across the network to
recover from the few errors that do occur.
6. After reaching its destination node, the envelope is removed and the
data is delivered to the endpoint.
 TWO TYPES OF CONGESTION IN FRAME RELAY
1. Receiver Congestion
2. Line Congestion

FECN - Forward Explicit Congestion Notification

BECN - Backward Explicit Congestion Notification

Error Control in Frame Relay

• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) – error detection
• Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) – error correction
• DE – Discard Eligibility
Definition of Terms
1. CIR – Committed Information Rate
– The average rate (in bps) at which the network
guarantees to transfer information units over a
measurement interval.
2. Bc – Committed Burst Size
– The maximum number of information units that
can be transmitted during the time interval.
3. Be
– The maximum number of uncommitted
information units that the network will attempt
to carry during the time interval
 Frame Relay Equipment
1. Bridge
2. Router
3. Host
4. Frame Relay Access Device

Frame Sizes Maximum number of

(variable lengths) bytes
Per frame
Ethernet 1500 bytes

Token frame 4.096 Mbps

 ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)
• A cell-based, connection oriented, switching and
multiplexing technology that allows voice, video
and data to be sent along the same network.

• A high speed, connection oriented switching and

multiplexing technology that uses 53 byte cells
(5-byte header, 48-byte payload) to transmit
different types of traffic simultaneously, including
voice, video and data. It is asynchronous in that
information streams can be sent independently
without a common clock.
ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)
ATM Components
1. Routers and switches to connect carrier on a
global basis
2. Backbone devices to connect all the LAN’s
within a large organization
3. Switches and adapters which link desktop
computers to high speed ATM connection for
running multimedia applications
 ATM Media
1. Coaxial cables
2. Twisted pair cables
3. Fiber optic cables

Constant bit rate: voice and video

Variable bit rate: data
ATM LAYERS
 ATM LAYERS
1. Physical Layer
– Responsible for the electrical or optical
transmission and reception along the physical
media between two devices.
2. ATM Layer (Network Layer)
– Deals with moving cells from source to destination
– Involves routing algorithms and protocols within
the ATM switches
3. ATM Adaptation Layer
– Adapts user traffic to a cell format
4. ATM Services and Application Layer
 ATM INTERFACES
1. User to Network Interface (UNI)
– Boundary between a host and an ATM network

2. Network to Network Interface (NNI)

– A line between two ATM switches

3. Data Exchange Interface (DXI)

4. Intercarrier Interface (ICI)

ATM INTERFACES
 ATM APPLICATIONS
1. Home working
2. Home shopping
3. Video on demand
4. Interactive multimedia games
5. Distance learning

ATM Speeds: 2.4 Gbps

FR Speeds: 1.024 Gbps

Bit Error Rate:

ATM: 10-12
X.25: 10-6
 ISDN (INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK)
• A digital telecommunications technology that
can simultaneously transmit voice and data over
the same pair of telephone wires.
 ISDN Channels
1. B-channel (Bearer Channel)
– Used to carry the digital information
– Building block of the ISDN
– 64 kbps
2. D-channel
– Used to carry signaling and supervisory information to the
network
– Kbps (BRI) or 64 kbps (PRI)
3. H channel
– Provided for user information at higher bit rates
– Combination of several B channels
a. H0 - 384 kbps (6 B channels)
b. H11 - 1.536 Mbps (24 B channels)
c. H12 - 1.92 Mbps (30 B channels)
d. H21 - 32 Mbps (512 B channels)
e. H22 - 44 Mbps (690 B channels)
f. H4 - 135 Mbps (2112 B channels)
 TYPES OF ISDN ACCESS INTERFACES
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
– 2B + D
– For individual users
2. Primary rate Interface (PRI)
– For business with large data needs
• American 23B + D (T1 = 1.544 Mbps)
• European 30B + D (E1 = 2.048 Mbps)
3. Broadband ISDN
– 150 Mbps
– For future HDTV projects
– H channels
 CUSTOMER PREMISES EQUIPMENT
NTE (Network Termination Equipment)
• Draws the demarcation line between the
ISDN network and your equipment
• Device responsible for converting the 2-wire
line from your local exchange into a 4-wire
line configuration to couple with the ISDN
equipment
 CUSTOMER PREMISES EQUIPMENT
TA (Terminal Adapter)
• Allows a non-ISDN equipment to be
connected to the ISDN line
• Analog signal are digitized and put into ISDN
format before entering the network
 ISDN APPLICATIONS
1. Digital telephony
2. Video communications
3. Leased line overflow or Back-up
4. LAN and WAN
5. Internet access
36. Redundancy means the ________
a. Transmission rate of the system
b. Symbols are to be repeated
c. Time between failures
d. Time between successes
37. The digital information is contained in
both the amplitude and phase of the
modulated carrier.
a. PSK
b. FSK
c. QAM
d. ASK
38.The input signal is a binary data signal
and a limited number of output phases
are possible.
a. PSK
b. FSK
c. QAM
d. ASK
39.A radio channel is composed of _____ VB
channels.
a. 1800
b. 900
c. 10800
d. 8064
40.What equation defines the composition
of an ISDN basic access line?
a. 2B + D
b. B+D
c. B + 2D
d. 2B + 2D
41.A digital network where voice,, video,
text and data are multiplied into as ingle
network for processing and are
transmitted prior to use.
a. Frame delay
b. Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
c. ISDN
d. Synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)
42.Non-ISDN equivalent can be connected
to ISDN line by the use of _________.
a. Terminal equipment
b. Terminal adapter
c. Modem
d. Network adaptor
43.A special voice encoder / decoder used in
digitizing speech signal only is
a. PCM
b. PWM
c. Vocoder
d. PFM
44.Equation used to determine the number
of Hamming bits in the Hamming code.
n
a. 2 = m + n + 1
n
b. 2 ≥ m + n + 1
n
c. 2 ≤ m + n + 1
n
d. 2 < m + n + 1
45.What determine which network
configuration is most appropriate?
a. Application layer
b. Presentation layer
c. Network layer
d. Data link layer
46.Ethernet is a baseband system using
CSMA/CD operating at _________.
a. 10 Mbps
b. 20 Mbps
c. 30 Mbps
d. 40 Mbps
47.Used of coaxial cables in interconnecting
networks is limited to an overall length of
_______.
a. 1500 ft
b. 1500 m
c. 1500 km
d. 1500 kft
48.What identifies how the stations are
interconnected in a network?
a. Topology
b. Architecture
c. Topology or architecture
d. Topology and architecture
49.________ is a data communications
network designed to provide two-way
communications between a large varieties of
data communication terminal equipment
within a relatively small geographic area.
a. Private area network
b. Local area network
c. Wide area network
d. Ethernet
50._______ is the mode of transmission in
public data network in which data are
transferred from source to the network
then to the destination in an asynchronous
data format.
a. Synchronous mode
b. Start / stop mode
c. Packet mode
d. Circuit mode
51.A seven digit character can represent one
of ________ possibilities.
a. 7
b. 14
c. 64
d. 128
52._______ is defined to be the maximum
rate at which information can be
transmitted through a channel.
a. Bit rate
b. Baud rate
c. Coding
d. Channel capacity
53.Who developed the fixed-length binary
code for telegraphy?
a. Samuel Morse
b. Emile Baudot
c. Alexander Graham Bell
d. Guglielmo Marconi
54.Inventor of pulse code modulation for
the digital encoding of speech signals.
a. R. V. L. Hartley
b. J. R. Carson
c. H. Nyquist
d. Alex Reeves
55.Serial binary data interchange between
DTE and DCE at rates up to 20 kbps. RS
232 is its EIA equivalent.
a. V.26
b. V.24
c. V.42
d. V.32
56.RS 232 is normally an interface between
DTE and DCE. What is its signal rate?
a. 20 kbps
b. 30 kbps
c. 40 kbps
d. 50 kbps
57.What is multiplexing?
a. The process of increasing bandwidth on a channel
b. A technique that enables more than one data source
to share the use of a common line
c. Mailing letter at the post office
d. The ability to share frequency by time
58.In ______ modulation the carrier is a
periodic rain pulses.
a. Amplitude
b. Analog
c. Digital
d. Pulse
59.Which of the following pulse modulation
techniques is a digital transmission
system?
a. Pulse duration modulation
b. Pulse position modulation
c. Pulse width modulation
d. Pulse code modulation
60.A process where the higher amplitude
analog signals are compressed prior to
transmission then expanded at the
receiver.
a. Compressing
b. Expanding
c. Encoding
d. Companding
61._______ uses a single bit PCM code to
achieve a digital transmission of analog
signal.
a. Quadrature amplitude modulation
b. Frequency shift keying
c. Delta modulation
d. Phase modulation
62.The line speed of Bell system T1 carrier
system is
a. 64 kbps
b. 3.152 Mbps
c. 1.544 Mbps
d. 6.312 Mbps
63.How many channels does a super group
have?
a. 60
b. 600
c. 1800
d. 10800
64.The output frequency at the channel
combiner of channel 7 is
a. 76 – 80 kHz
b. 80 – 84 kHz
c. 84 – 88 kHz
d. 88 – 92 kHz
65.______ was the first fixed-length 5-bit
character code.
a. EBCDIC
b. ASCII
c. Morse code
d. Baudot code
66.Amplitude shift keying is also known as
________.
a. Up / down keying
b. On / off keying
c. Front / back keying
d. I / O keying
67.PCM system require ________.
a. Analog signal
b. Large bandwidth
c. Digital signals
d. Fiber optics cable
68.Which theorem sets the limit on the
maximum capacity of a channel with a
given noise level?
a. Nyquist theorem
b. Hartley theorem
c. Shannon-Hartley theorem
d. Shannon theorem
69._______ is the difference between the
original and reconstructed signal.
a. Quantizing noise
b. Fade margin
c. Noise margin
d. Noise figure
70.What are the steps to follow to produce a
PCM signal?
a. Sampling, coding and quantizing
b. Sampling, quantizing and coding
c. Quantizing, sampling and coding
d. Coding, quantizing and sampling
71.______ identifies how the different
stations in a multipoint system are
interconnected.
a. Network topology
b. Star network
c. Ring topology
d. Bus network
72.A transmission where data are inputted
directly on the cable.
a. Broadband
b. Baseband
c. Digital
d. Analog
73.Synchronous modems cost more than
asynchronous modems because
a. They are larger
b. They must contain clock recovery circuits
c. The production volume is larger
d. They must operate on a larger bandwidth
74.When one station is designated as
master and the rest of the stations are
considered slaves, message handling is
______.
a. Store and forward
b. Polling
c. CSMA / CD
d. Token passing
75.A store and forward switching.
a. Circuit switching
b. Packet switching
c. Message switching
d. PSTN
76.A timing signal generated by an
oscillating circuit that is used to
synchronize data transmission.
a. Clock
b. Star bit
c. Quantizing
d. BCC
77.Which system allows different types of
networks to be linked together?
a. OSI
b. CCITT
c. Bell system
d. AT&T
78.A ______ that interconnects LAN having
identical protocols at the physical and
data link layers.
a. Bridge
b. Router
c. Gateway
d. Hub
79.A _____ that interconnects LAN that has
totally different protocols and format.
a. Bridge
b. Router
c. Gateway
d. Hub
80.All bits in a character can be sent /
received simultaneously.
a. Serial data
b. Parallel data
c. Full duplex
d. Half duplex
81.A system that perform parallel-to-series
conversion of a data link.
a. DTE
b. DCE
c. Modem
d. FEP
82.Which mode of transmission achieves
less than full duplex but more than half
duplex?
a. Full/full duplex
b. Echoplex
c. Isochronous
d. Synchronous
83.Rules governing the transmission of
digital information.
a. Data communications standard
b. Line protocol
c. Isochronous
d. Digital communications
84.Codes must be
a. Eight bits per character
b. Either seven or eight bits per character
c. Agreed upon in advance between sender and
receiver
d. The same in all modem computers
85.Clear to send is a signal passed from the
local modem to the local terminal when
data port is ready to transmit data. It
usually occurs in response to
a. Data set ready
b. Request to send
c. Data terminal ready
d. Data carrier detect
86.Digital to analog converter in
synchronous modems send signals to the
a. Modulator
b. Transmission lines
c. Terminal
d. Equalizer
87.What is the data rate of the ISDN Basic
access B channel?
a. 32 kbps
b. 64 kbps
c. 144 kbps
d. 192 kbps
88.How many bits are there to present 8
combinations?
a. 3
b. 4
c. 2
d. 5
89.How many number of equiprobable
events are there for 8-bits of information?
a. 256
b. 132
c. 2400
d. 512
90.Which character code is used without
parity bit?
a. CCITT number 2
b. ASCII
c. CCITT number 5
d. EBCDIC
91.The percentage of bit errors relative to a
specific number of bits received; usually
expressed as a number referenced to a
power of ten.
a. Bit error rate
b. Transmission rate
c. Distortion
d. Parity check
92.The process of one type of device
imitating another via a hardware /
software package.
a. Conversion
b. Emulation
c. Imitation
d. Simultation
93.A digital modulation technique that
results in two different frequencies
representing binary 1 and 0.
a. FSK
b. QPSK
c. ASK
d. DPSK
94.One dit is equal to ____ bits.
a. 3
b. 3.5
c. 3.32
d. 4
95.A quadratic signaling has ______
possible states.
a. 16
b. 4
c. 8
d. 32
96.What is the smallest unit of information
in binary transmission system?
a. Byte
b. Digit
c. Bit
d. Nibble
97.The lowest layer in the ISO protocol
hierarchy.
a. Network layer
b. Physical layer
c. Transport layer
d. Data link layer
98.Modem is referred to as
a. Universal asynchronous receiver transmitter
b. Universal synchronous receiver transmitter
c. Data terminal equipment
d. Data communication equipment
99.A signaling method relating to a
multiplicity of circuits is conveyed over a
single channel by labeled messages.
a. Code signaling
b. Synchronous
c. Common channel signaling
d. Asynchronous
100._______ is a network operating system
within several buildings in compound.
a. Internet
b. Novell netware
c. 10Base-T
d. Intranet
101.What is the Nyquist sample rate for a
voice input of 10 kHz?
a. 10 kHz
b. 20 kHz
c. 30 kHz
d. 40 kHz
102.What is the minimum number of bits
required in PCM code for a range of
10,000?
a. 12
b. 9
c. 14
d. 8
103. How many levels can be represented in
PCM transmission system if the binary
numbers 00000000 to 11111111 are used
to represent signal levels?
a. 256
b. 64
c. 128
d. 512
104.A symbol to represent a data
communications facility within the wide
area network.
a. Hub
b. Cloud
c. Server
d. Gateway
105.All bits in a character are sent and
received _______ in serial port.
a. One at a time
b. Simultaneously
c. In group of 2 bits
d. In group of 3 bits
106.Message switching is ______ network.
a. Hold and forward
b. Forward
c. Hold
d. Store and forward
107.Packet switching is ______ network.
a. Hold and forward
b. Forward
c. Hold
d. Store and forward
108.Polling is an invitation by the primary to
secondary equipment to _______ a
message.
a. Store
b. Receive
c. Transmit
d. Read
109.An 8-bit character code.
a. EBDCDIC
b. BAUDOT
c. ASCII
d. HOLLERITH
110. Equipment that interfaces the data
terminal equipment to the analog
transmission line.
a. Modem
b. Muldem
c. Multiplexer
d. Codec
111.A communication network design for
transferring data from one point to
another.
a. Public Telephone Network
b. Public Data Network
c. Value Added Network
d. Packet Switching Network
112.A conceptual network in which all
transmission lines handle digital or
digitized data.
a. LAN
b. WAN
c. ISDN
d. PSTN
113.A data communications component that
provides control or supporting services
for other computers , terminals or
devices in a network.
a. Host
b. Communication controller
c. Cluster controller
d. Interface equipment
114.Which data network configuration let
computers share their resources?
a. Peer to peer
b. Hierarchical
c. PVC
d. LAN
115.A means of improving the quality of a
private-line circuit by adding amplifiers
and equalizer to it.
a. Line equalizer
b. Line amplifying
c. Line conditioning
d. Line encoding
116.Direct distance dialing (DDD) network is
commonly called
a. Private-line network
b. PT network
c. Dial-up network
d. Trunk network
117.A type of server that allows multiple
users to take advantage of a single
printing device.
a. Print
b. Client
c. Network
d. File
118.______ ensures that the transmitter
and the receiver agree on a prescribed
time slot for the occurrence of a bit.
a. Bit or clock synchronization
b. Modem or carrier synchronization
c. Character synchronization
d. Message synchronization
119.Characters that must be transmitted
other than the data are called
a. Parity
b. Error
c. Overhead
d. Hamming bits
 7
120.The generating power polynomial x +
5 4 2 1
x + x + x + x + x is equivalent
a. 101101110
b. 101101111
c. 010010001
d. 10110111
121.A central device into which each node
of a star network is directly connected
a. Hub
b. Central pointer
c. Router
d. Repeater
122.To _____ is to send a file to a remote
computer.
a. Upload
b. Download
c. Call
d. Transmit
123.A microcomputer attached to a network
requires a
a. NIC
b. RS 232
c. Software
d. Protocol
124.Digital telephones and integrated voice-
data workstations are examples of what
type of ISDN equipment?
a. TE
b. TA
c. NT2
d. TP
125.How many OSI layers are covered
under the X.25 standard?
a. 3
b. 4
c. 7
d. 2
126.With ______, a station monitors the line
to determine if the line is busy.
a. CSMA/CD
b. CSMA/CA
c. Token passing
d. PDDI
127.CCITT standard concentrating on data
communications over the telephone
network.
a. V series
b. X series
c. I series
d. T series
128.Broadband uses
a. TDM
b. Space multiplexing
c. FDM
d. Statistical multiplexing
129.______ uses the connecting medium as
a single-channel device.
a. Broadband transmission
b. Digital transmission
c. Base band transmission
d. Analog transmission
130.Which is considered as the fastest LAN
topology?
a. Ring
b. Bus
c. Star
d. Tree
131.What is the most widely used data
communications code?
a. Gray
b. EBCDIC
c. Baudot
d. ASCII
132.Mark and space refer respectively to
a. 1 and 0
b. Dot and dash
c. Message and interval
d. On and off
133.What is the other name for parity?
a. BCC
b. LRC
c. VRC
d. CRC
134.A device that performs routing functions
and protocol translation from one
network to another.
a. Gateway
b. Bridge
c. Router
d. Repeater
135.Not important characteristic of the
physical layer.
a. Electrical
b. Mechanical
c. Logical
d. All of them