Modern Chemistry Chapter 6- Chemical Bonding

• chemical bond- a
mutual electrical
attraction between
the nuclei and the
valence electrons of
different atoms that
binds the atoms
together
• ionic bond- a
chemical bond that
results from the
electrical attraction
between anions
and cations
 Na + Cl  NaCl

sodium loses its one valence electron to form the

cation Na+

This allows the atom to become like neon

with eight electrons in it outer energy level.

chlorine gains that electron to form the anion Cl-

This allows the atom to become like argon with eight

electrons in its outer energy level.

Na+ is attracted to Cl- (opposites attract) and an

ionic bond forms
• covalent bond- a chemical bond that
results from the sharing of electron
pairs between two atoms

• nonpolar covalent bond- a covalent bond

in which the bonding electrons are shared
equally by the atoms forming the bond
-because their electronegativities are
essentially equal

• polar covalent bond- a covalent bond in

which the bonded atoms have an unequal
attraction for the shared electrons
-because one atom has a greater
electronegativity than the other
• Nonpolar covalent • Polar covalent
bond bond

H· ·H H · ·F
+ -
Equal electronegativities Fluorine’s greater
of the hydrogen atoms electronegativity causes
cause the pair of the shared electrons to
electrons to be shared move closer to it and
equally and a nonpolar creates areas of slight
covalent bond to form. positive and negative
charge forming a polar
covalent bond
 Determining Bond Type
• Find the absolute difference in the
electronegativities of the bonding atoms.
• The greater the difference, the greater the
% ionic character which makes it more like an
ionic bond.

– IF the absolute difference is

• < 0.3 the bond is nonpolar covalent
• > 0.3 and < 1.7 the bond is polar covalent
• > 1.7 the bond is ionic

Do section review problems #1-4 on page 177.

 Section Review page 177
1- Electron pairs are shared in covalent bonds and electrons
are transferred between atoms in ionic bonds.

2-The difference in the electronegativities of bonding atoms

determines the bond type.

For problem #3 use the electronegativity chart on page 161.

3a- Li = 1.0 F = 4.0 4.0-1.0 = 3.0  ionic bond
3b- Cu = 1.9 S = 2.5 2.5-1.9=0.6  polar covalent
3c- I = 2.5 Br = 2.8 2.8-2.5=0.3  polar covalent

4- c (0.3) < b (0.6) < a (3.0)

Covalent Bonding & Molecular Compounds
• molecule- a neutral group of atoms that are
held together by covalent bonds
• molecular compound- a chemical compound
whose simplest units are molecules
• chemical formula- indicates the relative
numbers of atoms of each kind in a chemical
compound by using element symbols and
numerical subscripts
• molecular formula- shows the types and
numbers of atoms combined in a single
molecule of a molecular compound
• diatomic molecule- a molecule containing only
two atoms
 Formation of a Covalent Bond
**-see figure 5 on page 179-**
• As two atoms come near one another, the
nuclei of each atom are attracted to the
electrons of the other atom.
• This causes a decrease in the potential
energy of the atoms.
• As a bond between the atoms forms, the
potential energy of the system reaches its
lowest point. At this point, the two atoms
“share” at least one pair of electrons which are
then able to move freely between the nuclei of
the two atoms in overlapping orbitals.
• If the atoms get closer to one another,
repulsion between the nuclei increases and the
potential energy increases.
 Bond Length & Bond Energy

• bond length- the average distance

between two bonded atoms
• bond energy- the energy required to
break a chemical bond and form neutral,
isolated atoms
– see figure 7 on page 181
– see table 1 on page 182

What is the general relationship between bond length

and bond energy (strength) as seen in table 1?
 The Octet Rule
• octet rule- chemical
compounds tend to form so
that each atom, by gaining,
losing, or sharing electrons,
has an octet of electrons in its
outermost energy level

• EXCEPTIONS:
– hydrogen atoms are complete
with two electrons (H2)
– boron atoms are complete with 6
electrons (BF3)
– some elements show expanded
valence involving “d” orbitals
(PF5 & SF6)
 Electron-Dot Notation
• electron-dot notation- is an electron
configuration notation in which only the
valence electrons of an atom of a
particular element are shown, indicated by
dots placed around the element symbol
¨
:F:
.
 Lewis Structures
• Lewis structures- are formulas in which
atomic symbols represent nuclei and inner
shell electrons, dot pairs adjacent to a
single atom represent unshared electron
pairs, and dashes between the atomic
symbols represent covalent bonds
between two atoms
¨ ¨
:F-F:
¨ ¨
 Rules for Drawing Lewis Structures

1- Determine the types and numbers of atoms in the

molecule.
2- Arrange the atoms to form a skeleton structure for the
molecule. If carbon is present, it is the central atom.
Otherwise, the least electronegative atom (except for
hydrogen) is central. Add the electron dot structure for
each atom in the molecule.
3- Connect the atoms with lines to represent covalent bonds
between shared electron pairs.
4- Add unshared pairs of electrons so each atom (other than
hydrogen) has eight electrons.
• structural formula-
indicates the kind,
number,
arrangement, and
bonds but not the
unshared pairs of
electrons of the atoms
in a molecule

F-F
 Covalent Bonds
single bond- is a covalent bond in which one pair
of electrons is shared between two atoms

H· ·H  H-H

-Do practice problems #1-4 on page 186

 Drawing Lewis Structures
• page 186 #1

NH3 N (5 electrons) + 3 H (1 electron each)

H H

H N H  H N H
 Drawing Lewis Structures
• Page 186 #2 H2S

H S  H S

H H
 Page 186 #3 & 4
3- SiH4 H
H Si H
H

4- PF3
F P F
F
multiple covalent bonds- are double (two shared
pairs of electrons) or triple (three shared pairs of
electrons) bonds
:O=O: :N=N:
¨ ¨
-Do practice problems #1-2 on page
188.
-Do Section Review problems #2, 4, &
5 on page 189.
 Drawing Lewis Structures
• page 188 #1 CO2

O C O O C O
 Drawing Lewis Structures
• page 188 #2 HCN

H C N H C N
 Section review page 189
2-State the octet rule.
Atoms will gain, lose, or share electrons so that
each atom has an octet of electrons.

4- a) I Br c) H C C Cl

b) H d) Cl
H C H Cl Si Cl
Br Cl

e) F O
F
 Section review page 189

5- H N N H
H H

H N N H
 Lewis Structure Practice
• Draw the Lewis structures of the following
molecular compounds. Also use the model kits
to build the molecule. The highlighted formulas
represent molecules that contain multiple bonds.

NH3 CO2 N2 O2

HBr H2CO3 C2H6 C2H4

C2H2 PF3
NH3  H N H
H

HBr  Br H

C 2H 2  H C C H
CO2  O C O

H2CO3  H C O O H
O

PF3  F P F
F
N2  N N

C2H6  H H
H C C H
H H

O2  O O

C2H4  H C C H
H H
 Drawing Lewis Structures- review

1- Determine which element in the formula will be the central

atom(s) of the structure.
2- Make a probable skeleton arrangement of the atoms.
3- Put the correct number of dots to equal the valence
electrons of each atom.
4- Draw lines between single electrons of adjacent atoms.
5- If there are extra dots around adjacent atoms, draw multiple
bond lines.
6- Make sure each atom has 8 electrons either in unshared
pairs or shared bonds. Remember, hydrogen has just two
electrons.
 Lewis Structure Quiz
Draw the Lewis structures for the following
compounds.
1- H 2O

2- PF3

3- SiO2

4- SeBr2

5- CS2
 Ionic Bonding & Ionic Compounds
• ionic compound- is
composed of positive and
negative ions that are
combined so that the
number of positive and
negative charges are equal

• formula unit- is the

simplest collection of atoms
from which an ionic
compound’s formula can be
established
eg. NaCl
 Formation of Ionic Bonds
• An atom of an element with low electronegativity
approaches another with high electronegativity.
• The highly electronegative atom then transfers
an electron from the atom with low
electronegativity.
• This creates an anion and a cation.
• The attraction between the ions forms an ionic
bond.
Na + Cl  Na+ + Cl -
 Ionic Crystals
• Ionic compounds tend
to form an orderly
arrangement known
as a crystal lattice
which then forms
crystals.

***see figure 14 on page

191***
 Comparing Ionic & Molecular Compounds

• ionic compound molecular compound

high melting point lower melting point
high boiling point lower boiling point
extreme hardness lower hardness (usually)
brittle less brittle
 Polyatomic Ions
• polyatomic ion- a covalently bonded
group of atoms with a positive or a
negative charge

• Review the list of polyatomic ions given to you by

the teacher.
 Metallic Bonding
• metallic bond- a chemical bond resulting from
the attraction between metal atoms and the
surrounding sea of electrons

• The ability of the electrons to move freely

between the nuclei of the metal atoms accounts
for the unique properties of metals.

– This accounts for their being good conductors of heat

and electricity.
 Properties of Metals
• luster- the ability to absorb light
energy and immediately re-emit
it at the same or similar
frequency which makes them
reflective.

• malleable- the ability of a

substance to be hammered or
beaten into thin sheets

• ductility- the ability of a

substance to be drawn, pulled, or
extruded through a small
opening to produce a wire
 Molecular Geometry
• VSEPR theory (valence
shell electron pair
repulsion)- allows us to
predict the shape of
molecules. It states that
repulsion between the
sets of valence level
electrons surrounding an
atom causes these sets
to be oriented as far apart
as possible
 VSEPR Theory
• When determining the shape of a molecule using VSEPR, use the
following steps:

 Draw the Lewis structure of the compound.

 Find the central atom(s). Use the letter “A” for this
atom.
 Count the number of atoms bonded to the central
atom. Use the letter ”B” and a subscript for the
number of atoms bonded to the central atom “A”.
 Count the number of unshared electron pairs around
the central “A” atom.
 Use the letter “E” and a subscript for the number of
unshared electron pairs around the central atom
 Use this “ABE” designation to find the molecular shape
using table 5 on page 200 of the textbook.

• Do practice problems #1 & 2 on page 201.

 Practice problems page 201

1a- F-S-F S = A F=B=2 E=2

AB2E2  bent or angular

1b- Cl-P-Cl P = A B = Cl = 3 E = 1
Cl
AB3E  trigonal-pyrimidal
 H
H-C-N-H
HH

This molecule has two central atoms (C & N)

so it has two molecular shapes that are
combined.
 Hybridization
• hybridization- is the mixing or two or
more atomic orbitals of similar energies on
the same atom to produce new hybrid
atomic orbitals of equal energies

• hybrid orbitals- orbitals of equal energy

produced by the combination of two or
more orbitals on the same atom

• Hybridization explains the unique qualities of a

carbon atom with its “sp3” orbitals.
 Intermolecular Forces
intermolecular forces- the forces of attraction
between molecules

1. dipole-dipole forces- forces of attraction between

polar molecules

2. hydrogen bonding- intermolecular force in which a

hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative
atom is attracted to an unshared pair of electrons of
an electronegative atom in a nearby molecule

3. London Dispersion forces- intermolecular

attraction resulting from the constant motion of
electrons and the creation of instantaneous dipoles
 Chapter 6 Review
• Do the following
review problems from
pages 209-211 of the
textbook.

#6, 15, 19, 21, 34,

43, & 48
 End of Chapter Practice
#6 H (2.1) I (2.5)  0.4 = polar covalent
S (2.5) O (3.5) 1.0 = polar covalent
K (0.8) Br (2.8) 2.0 = ionic
Si (1.8) Cl (3.0) 1.2 = polar covalent
K (0.8) Cl (3.0)  2.2 = ionic
Se (2.4) S (2.5)  0.1= nonpolar covalent
C (2.5) H (2.1)  0.4 = polar covalent

#15 H = 1 F=7 Mg = 2 O=6

Al = 3 N=5 C=4
 End of Chapter Practice

#19 Li Ca Cl

O C P

Al S
 End of Chapter Practice

F
#21 F C F H Se H
F
Br
I N I Br Si Br
I Br

Cl
H C H
H
 End of Chapter Practice

#34 AB2 = linear

AB3 = trigonal planar
AB4 = tetrahedral
AB5 = trigonal bipyramidal
AB6 = octahedral
 End of Chapter Practice

#43 AB3E = trigonal pyramidal

AB2E2 = bent or angular

AB2E = bent or angular

 Honors Chemistry Chapter 6 Test Review
40 multiple choice questions:
 valence electrons, chemical bonds (how they occur)
 atoms & potential energy leading to stability and bond
formation
 polar & nonpolar covalent bonds
 difference in electronegativity & % ionic character
 using electronegativities, determine if a bond is ionic,
polar or nonpolar covalent
 definition of molecule, molecular formula (&examples),
bond length, octet & octet rule
 elements meeting octet rule naturally
 how to draw a Lewis structure, identifying a Lewis
structure, bonding in Lewis structures
 Honors Chemistry Chapter 6 Test Review
 formula of an ionic compound represents…
 lattice energy, crystal lattice
 compare properties of ionic & molecular compounds and
the strength of their bonds
 electrons & charge of polyatomic ions
 metallic bonds & their electrons
 properties of metals & the cause
 properties of ionic crystals
 VSEPR definition & use
 intermolecular forces (dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding,
London dispersion), their relative strength and properties
 Chemistry Chapter 6 Test Review
25 multiple choice questions
 definitions and functions of valence electrons & chemical bonds
 bonding & potential energy
 polar & nonpolar covalent bonds & their characteristics
 use difference in electronegativity to determine bond type
 define molecule, molecular formula, & octet
 which elements satisfy the octet rule by themselvs
 which elements form multiple covalent bonds
 what is necessary to draw a Lewis structure & recognize a correct Lewis
structure
 properties of ionic vs. covalent compounds
 excess (or deficit) electrons in polyatomic ions
 valence electrons in metallic bonds
 properties of metals and why they occur
 definition of VSEPR
 intermolecular forces and why they occur, especially dipole-dipole forces
 polar molecules
 VSEPR Lab
H2O H O AB2E2
H

CO2 O C O AB2

H AB4
CH3NH2 H C N H
H H AB3E
 VSEPR Lab
H2CO H C O AB3
H

CH4 H
H C H AB4
H
 VSEPR Lab
C2H6 H H AB4
H C C H
H H AB4

C2H2 H C C H AB2
AB2
 VSEPR Lab

HCOOH H C O H AB3
AB2E2
O