Nominal

Nominal scales are used for labeling variables, without

any quantitative value. “Nominal” scales could simply be
called “labels.” Here are some examples, below. Notice
that all of these scales are mutually exclusive (no
overlap) and none of them have any numerical
significance. A good way to remember all of this is that
“nominal” sounds a lot like “name” and nominal scales
are kind of like “names” or labels.
s.
 Ordinal
With ordinal scales, it is the order of the values is what’s important and
significant, but the differences between each one is not really known. Take a
look at the example below. In each case, we know that a #4 is better than a
#3 or #2, but we don’t know–and cannot quantify–how much better it is. For
example, is the difference between “OK” and “Unhappy” the same as the
difference between “Very Happy” and “Happy?” We can’t say.
 Ordinal scales are typically measures of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction,
happiness, discomfort, etc.
 “Ordinal” is easy to remember because is sounds like “order” and that’s the
key to remember with “ordinal scales”–it is the order that matters, but that’s
all you really get from these.
 Interval
Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only
the order, but also the exact differences between the
values. The classic example of an interval scale
is Celsius temperature because the difference between each
value is the same. For example, the difference between 60 and
50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is the difference
between 80 and 70 degrees. Time is another good example of
an interval scale in which the increments are known,
consistent, and measurable.
 Interval scales are nice because the realm of statistical
analysis on these data sets opens up. For
example, central tendency can be measured by mode,
median, or mean; standard deviation can also be
calculated.
 Like the others, you can remember the key points of an
“interval scale” pretty easily. “Interval” itself means
“space in between,” which is the important thing to
remember–interval scales not only tell us about order, but
also about the value between each item.
 Here’s the problem with interval scales: they don’t have a
“true zero.” For example, there is no such thing as “no
temperature.” Without a true zero, it is impossible to
compute ratios. With interval data, we can add and
subtract, but cannot multiply or divide. Confused? Ok,
consider this: 10 degrees + 10 degrees = 20 degrees. No
problem there. 20 degrees is not twice as hot as 10
degrees, however, because there is no such thing as “no
temperature” when it comes to the Celsius scale. I hope
that makes sense. Bottom line, interval scales are great,
but we cannot calculate ratios, which brings us to our last
measurement scale…
 Ratio
 Ratio scales are the ultimate nirvana when it comes to measurement scales because they tell
us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they also have an absolute
zero–which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential statistics to be
applied. At the risk of repeating myself, everything above about interval data applies to ratio
scales + ratio scales have a clear definition of zero. Good examples of ratio variables include
height and weight.
 Ratio scales provide a wealth of possibilities when it comes to statistical analysis. These
variables can be meaningfully added, subtracted, multiplied, divided (ratios). Central
tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean; measures of dispersion, such as
standard deviation and coefficient of variation can also be calculated from ratio scales.
Parametric statistics

testing is based on population parameters;

includes tests of significance based on interval
or ratio data. It requires as much as possible
that there is normal (Gaussian) distribution in
the population, random sampling is performed
and that variance in the groups is equal.
Includes, among others:
 t tests
 Pearson moment of Correlation
 ANOVA
 ANCOVA
Non-parametric statistics

– testing is not based on population parameters; includes tests

of significance based on ordinal or nominal data. It is less
powerful than parametric tests; more difficult to reject the null
hypothesis; can be used with small samples; used when
parametric assumptions can not be met. Includes, among
others:
 Chi square test
 Wilcoxon tests
 Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA
 Sign Test
 Fisher’s Exact Test
 Spearman Rank-Order Correlation
NO. OF SAMPLES AIM TEST STATISTIC

1. One Sample Case To test for the mean T test for 1 mean (for small
samples)
Z test for 1 mean (for large
samples)

To test for proportion Z test for 1 proportion (for

small samples)

To test for correlation of two Z test for correlation (can

quantitative variables also perform simple linear
regression analysis)

To test for association of Chi square

qualitative variables test of association
 NO. OF SAMPLES AIM TEST STATISTIC
TWO INDEPENDENT To test for difference of T-test for 2 means (for
SAMPLES two means small samples)

Z test for 2 means (for

large samples)
To test for difference of z test for two
two proportions proportions
Chi square test of
homogeneity (large
samples)

Fisher’s test (small

samples)
TWO RELATED SAMPLES To test for difference of Paired t test
two means
To test for difference of McNemar’s test
two proportions
 NUMBER OF SAMPLES AIM TEST STATISTIC
4. Three or more T o test for differences F test (ANOVA)
independent samples among means

To test differences Chi Square Test

among proportions

5. Test of Association Chi Square Test of

Association
Pearson Correlation
Coefficient
Regression Analysis –
linear, logistic, survival,
Poisson
MORE GUIDE TO THE CHOICE OF
STATISTICAL TESTS
No. of Samples LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
NOMINAL/ ORDINAL/ INTERVAL OR
CATEGORICAL ORDERED RATIO
I. ONE SAMPLE
CASE
Determine if Binomial test
sample is from a Z test for
population with proportion
pre-specified ρ or
μ

Determine if Chi square test of Kolmogorov- Z test for 1 mean

sample is from a goodness of fit Smirnov one- T test for 1 mean
population with sample test
pre-specified
distribution
Runs Test
Test of
randomness

II. Two-sample Marginal Chi or

Case (comparison McNemar change
of 2 groups) test
 LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
No. of Samples NOMINAL/ ORDINAL/ INTERVAL OR RATIO
CATEGORICAL ORDERED
II. Two-sample Case
(comparison of 2 Wald-Wolfowitz
groups) Runs Test

Related Samples Marginal Chi or Sign Test Paired t test

McNemar change Wilcoxon Rank Sum
test test

Independent Fisher Exact test for Wilcoxon-Mann Z test for 2 means

Samples 2X2 test Whitney test T test for two
means
Z test for two Robust-rank order
proportions test

Chi square test for r Kolmogorov –

X 2 tables Smirnov Two-sample
test

Siege l-Tukey Test

for Scale
Differences
 LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
No. of Samples NOMINAL/ ORDINAL/ INTERVAL OR RATIO
CATEGORICAL ORDERED
III. K-sample Case
(comparison of 2
groups)

Related Samples Cochran Q test Friedman-Two Way Repeated Measures

ANOVA by Ranks, Fr ANOVA

Page Test for

Ordered Two-Way ANOVA (F
Alternatives test )

Independent Chi square test Extension of Median One Way ANOVA

Samples Test

Kruskal-Wallis (H)
Test
Jonkheere Test for
Ordered
Alternatives
 LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
No. of NOMINAL/ ORDINAL/ INTERVAL OR RATIO
Samples/Aim CATEGORICAL ORDERED
Correlation Cramer V Coefficient Spearman rank Pearson Coefficient
correlation (simple and multipl
Phi Kappa coefficient of coefficient e)
Agreement
Kendall Rank-order Kendall’s coefficient
Goodman & Kruskall’s correlation of Concordance
Gamma coefficient

Lambda Sommer’s d

Tau a, b and c

Tschuprow’s T
Correlation Ratio Analysis of Co-
(nominal and interval) variance (ANCOVA)
(simultaneous
Point Biserial Correlation
correlation and
comparison)
Qualitative Odds Ratio
Association: Risk Ratio
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

TYPE MAJOR QUESTIONS

Ethnography What are the culture and
perspectives of this group in its
natural setting?
Case Study What are the characteristics of this
individual, organization, or group?
Document Analysis What can be learned from this
phenomenon by studying these
documents?
Naturalistic What can be learned by
Observation unobtrusively observing behavior
as it naturally occurs?
Focused Interview What can be learned about a
particular topic by interviewing
members of this group?
Phenomenological What does this experience mean
Study for the participants in the
experience?
Grounded Theory What theory can be derived
inductively about a phenomenon
from the data collected in this
particular setting?
Historical What insights or conclusions can
be reached about this past event?
 Aim: Prediction

Nature of No. of
Outcome Independent Test
or Variables
Dependent
Variable
Quantitative 1 Simple linear Regression

Quantitative More than 1 Multiple Linear Regression

Qualitative 1 Simple Logistic Regression

Qualitative More than 1 Multiple logistic Regression

Presentation is the narrative
description of summarized data.
With good analysis and
interpretation, figures start
to disappear and pictures
start to appear.
Analysis on the other hand involves the
decomposition and synthesis of data with
the end view of accounting for trends,
patterns, or differentials observed
(descriptive analysis) or to account for the
behavior of variables on the basis of
computed statistical indices (statistical
analysis)
Two Types of Analysis
 Descriptive – means to portray something or to
create a picture or portray attributes of the
population or phenomenon; look or portrayal of
events
 Statistical – use of statistical tools; look for how
variables behave on the basis of the computed
statistical index
Interpretation involves giving meaning to
analyzed data by cross referencing your analysis
with corroborative evidences. This is where the
review of related literature becomes interwoven
into the texture of the research report.
Data = facts and figures
Information = data + context
Knowledge = information + meaning
(ie, only
those info that have
meanings have values)
 The reason why we interpret the tables is
because no two people will have the same
interpretation of it.
 Ex of:
 Data: 20% said Yes (in the context of what?)
 Info: 20% said Yes when asked about their
agreement that the Asin Law is an effective
means of deterring goiter incidence in the
country.
Interpretation
 Giving
meanings into what have been
analyzed
 Drawing out implications
 Must show proof that analysis is correct as
shown by providing evidence from the
literature review (corroboration/cross
referencing)
Data are regarded as any set of
numerical information or individual
recordings.
The purpose of which is for
evaluation and analysis.
They are gathered thru counting
(surveys, census, inventory) and
measuring (height, weight, intelligence,
income, temperature, distance, etc)
Data maybe analyzed quantitatively
or qualitatively depending on the level
of measurement and the number of
dimensions as well as variables in the
study.
Analyze data in depth to give
meaning to the data presented in
tables
Methods of Data Presentation:

 1. Narrative or Textual Method

- data is simply narrated, story –
fashion
- often boring for the reader
 Textual Presentation uses statements with numerals
or numbers to describe data. The main aims of
textual presentation are to focus attention to some
important data and to supplement tabular
presentation.
 The disadvantage, especially if it is too long, is that it
is boring to read and the reader may not even be able
to grasp the quantitative relationships of the data
presented. The reader may even skip some
statements.
Methods of Data Presentation
 2. Tabular
- provide a compact way of presenting large
sets of detailed information
- readily made, they can readily point out
trends and comparisons as well as show the
interrelationships among different variables
which may not be apparent in a narrative listing
of the data
- however self-explanatory, still needs a short
narrative description of data, usually, only the
highlight s of the findings (ie, the highest and
the lowest values in the distribution)
2. TABULAR Presentation

 Thisis a systematic arrangement of related

data in which classes of numerical facts or
data are given each row and their sub-
classes are given each a column in order to
present the relationships of the sets of
numerical facts or data in a definite,
compact and understandable forms.
Purpose of a Table

 The purpose is to facilitate the study and

interpretation, the making of inferences
and implications of the relationships of
statistical data.
 Tableconstruction for data presentation is
a part of analysis because the data are
separated and grouped according to class
or category.
 Advantages of Tabular over Textual

1. Statistical tables are concise, and because data are

systematically grouped and arranged, explanatory
matter is minimal.
2. Data are more easily read, understood and
compared because of their systematic and logical
arrangement into rows and columns
3. Tables give the whole information even without
combining numerals with textual matters.
 Parts of Statistical Table
TABLE NUMBER
Title
Master Caption
Stub
Head Column Column Column Column
Caption Caption Caption Caption

Row Label

Row Label BODY

Row Label

TOTAL

Footnote/Source note

NEXT
Table Heading

It consist the table number and

the title. The table number is
usually written in Arabic and
placed at the center, above the
title numbered consecutively
throughout the research.
 BACK
BOXHEAD

It is found at the top of the

column, it identifies what are
contained in the column. Included
in it are the stubhead, master
caption, and the column caption.
 BACK
Stubs/Row Label

 Itis the classification or categories

found at the left side of the body of
the table. Each row label describes
the data contained in that row.

 BACK
BODY

 Itis the main part of the table. It contains

the substance or the figures of one’s data.

 Back
Footnote/Source Note

 The footnote which appears immediately

below the bottom line of the table explains,
qualifies or certifies some items in the table
which are not readily understandable or are
missing.
 The source note which is generally written
below the footnote indicates the origin or
source of the data presented in the table.
 BACK
Presentation of Table

 Tables are presented in narrative form. The table

and its textual presentation should be placed as
near as possible to each other.
 All items in the table are textually presented.
This manner enables the readers to comprehend
the totality of the data even without consulting
the table.
 Only the highlights or important parts of the data
are textually presented.
Methods of Data Presentation

 3. Graphical
- superior over Tabular and narrative
methods
- could show trends or patterns in a large
data set which could be missed if
presented in tabular form
3. GRAPHICAL Presentation
A GRAPH – is a chart representing the
quantitative variations or changes of a
variable itself, or quantitative changes of
variable in comparison with those of
another variables in pictorial or
diagrammatic form.
 Purpose of graphing – is to present the
variations, changes, and relationships of
data in a most attractive, appealing,
effective and convincing way.
Advantages of Graphic Method

1. Attracts attention more effectively than tables

and therefore is less likely to be overlooked.
2. The use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a
list of figures in business reports more
meaningful.
3. It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative
data.
4. Graph enables the busy executive of a business
concern to grasp the essential facts quickly and
without much trouble.
 Cont.
 Descriptive statistics enable us to understand data
through summary values and graphical presentations.
Summary values not only include the average, but also
the spread, median, mode, range, and standard
deviation.
 It is important to look at summary statistics along with
the data set to understand the entire picture, as the
same summary statistics may describe very different
data sets.
When creating graphic displays, keep in mind the
following questions.

 What am I trying to communicate?

 Who is my audience?

 What might prevent them from understanding

this display?

 Does the display tell the entire story?

 Type of Type of Variable/Data Being Purpose of
Graph Gathered Presenting the
Graph
Histogram Continuous, quantitative To present a
frequency
distribution of a
quantitative
variable like age,
height, etc.
 Type of Type of Variable/Data Being Purpose of
Graph Gathered Presenting the
Graph
Frequency Continuous, quantitative The same use as the
Polygon histogram, but is
better to use when
presenting more
than one frequency
distribution in the
same graph (ex.:
comparison of the
weights of male
and female children
 Type of Type of Variable/Data Being Purpose of
Graph Gathered Presenting the
Graph
Bar Chart Qualitative, or discrete quantitative To show or compare
absolute counts or
relative figures
(percentages,
rates, etc) of
qualitative or
discrete
quantitative
variables
 Type of Type of Variable/Data Being Purpose of
Graph Gathered Presenting the
Graph
Line Absolute counts as well as relative Used to show trends
Diagram or summary figures of both in absolute counts,
quantitative and qualitative rates or means with
variables for which the analysis respect to time,
of trends is relevant age, etc.

160
140
120
100
Patient 1
80
Patient 2
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 Type of Type of Variable/Data Being Purpose of
Graph Gathered Presenting the
Graph

Pie Chart Qualitative, or broad categories of Shows how a total is

quantitative variables divided into
subcategories;
used when the
number of
Expenses categories are not
too many

Electricity
1,700
350 Water
550
Gas
6,000 Groceries
1,500
Fare
2,000
Food
Type of Graph Type of Purpose of
Variable/Data Presenting the
Being Gathered Graph
Component Qualitative, or broad Same as the pie
bar diagram/ categories of chart, but is
Chart quantitative better to use
variables when
presenting two
100%
90%
3.1 or more sets of
3.2 7.5 2.5 2.5
80% data.
70% 5.4
60% 7.02 Social Welfare
2.83 2.3 2.3
50% Education
40% 4.8 Defense
2.4 6.51 2.1 1.8
30%
Health
20%
2.3 5.3 1.7 1.76 4.6
10%
0%
1 2 3 4 5
 Type of Type of Variable/Data Being Purpose of Presenting
Graph Gathered the Graph
Scatterplo Quantitative (discrete or continuous) To show the nature,
Diagra direction and the
m strength of the
relationship between
two continuous
quantitative variables

Fig. IV-1.
Relationship Between Age and Reliability

30

25

20
Age

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
SD
Discussion
• major inconsistencies
• statements about failures and
explanatory comments
• incidental findings may prove to be
more important than anticipated
results
• be alert for unexpected behavior/s
Organization of the subject area
• each problem are arranged in
sequential order
Presentation of Data in Table
• all related tables containing the
data are sequentially arranged and
discussed.
Narrative Presentation
• Start with a brief introductory
paragraph, giving the purpose of
the data
• Follow it with a statement
presenting the table itself, and
• analyze and interpret the
findings therein.
Tables, Graphs
• it is recommended that a table follow
immediately after it is mentioned in the
text.
• It should be relatively simple and easy
to read.
• The title usually placed above the table,
should be clear, concise and should
indicate what is being tabulated
Tables, Graphs
•Must be read and understood without
reference to the text.
•Must be numbered consecutively.
•Must be related to the text.
•All illustrative material in the
research report should be called
figures.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
To ensure depth analysis, answer
the following:
• what do the data/findings mean?
• How significant are they in terms of
your own theory and that of the cited
authority?
• are there inconsistencies in the
findings?
• what are the circumstances that may
have influenced the unexpected
outcomes of the study?
• what are the practical implications of
the findings to your own field of
specialization?
 PRINCIPLE
-Review the objective to which each table is
linked
-Indicate the subtitle of the data
interpretation based on the title of the table
Start or end with a generalization backed up
by supporting data. This generalization should
be guided by the objective and the hypothesis
Focus on the highest and lowest data to show
trends. Do not mention all the categories and
the data to prevent confusion among readers.
Readers interested on details will see the
tables.
Discuss reasons to explain some results or
findings based on review on literature,
observation or impression.
Round off figures and avoid remainders, to
facilitate recall of data.
EXAMPLE
-Sex and knowledge on research
-Females are more knowledgeable of
research than males
-Most of the local tourists were in their 30s
(50%) and 40s (40%). The least represented
were those in their 20s.
-There is a higher percentage of local
tourists in their 30s and 40s than those in
their 20s. This trend could be due to the
relatively higher salary and higher position
of the older respondents.
-Ninety percent (90 instead of 89.8%) of
those who went on local tourism were in
their 30s and 40s.
 The amount of statistical information
that is disseminated to the public for one
reason or another is phenomenal, and what
part of it is “good” statistics and what part
of it is “bad “ statistics is anybody’s guess

LIES…DAMNED LIES…and
STATISTICS
ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA
Analysis of data in a research project
involves summarizing the mass of data
collected and presenting the results in a way
that communicates the most important
features. In quantitative research analysis
involves things like the frequencies of
variables, differences between variables,
statistical tests designed to estimate the
significance of the results and the probability
that they did not occur by chance.
All this is done basically by counting how
often something appears in the data and
comparing one measurement with others. At
the end of the analysis, not only do we have
a mass of results but we also have what we
might call "the big picture", the major
findings.
 In qualitative research we are also interested in
discovering the big picture but use different
techniques to find it. As in quantitative research,
there may be some data which are measurable but for
the most part we are interested in using the data to
describe a phenomenon, to articulate what it means
and to understand it.
The basic process of analyzing
quantitative and qualitative data is the
same. We start by labelling or coding
every item of information so that we can
recognize differences and similarities
between all the different items. Imagine
a questionnaire which has been used to
collect quantitative information about
why patients go to the health centre.
Formal Analysis of Data
1. Constant Comparison/Grounded Theory
 Look for indicators of categories in events and
behavior - name them and code them on document
 Compare codes to find consistencies and differences
 Consistencies between codes (similar meanings or
pointing to a basic idea) reveals categories. So need
to categorize specific events
 Memo on the comparisons and emerging categories
 Eventually category saturates when no new codes
related to it are formed
 Eventually certain categories become more central
focus - axial categories and perhaps even core
category.
Formal Analysis of Data
2. Analytic Induction - Looking at an event and
developing a hypothetical statement of what
happened. Then look at another similar event
and see if it fits the hypothesis. Begin looking
for exceptions to hypothesis, when found,
revise the hypothesis to fit all examples
encountered. Eventually a hypotheses will
develop that accounts for all observed cases.
3. Logical Analysis/Matrix Analysis- An outline of
generalized causation, logical reasoning
process, using flow charts, diagrams, etc. to
pictorially represent these, as well as written
descriptions.
Formal Analysis of Data
4. Quasi-statistics- Counting the number of times
something is mentioned in field notes as very
rough estimate of frequency. Often
enumeration is used to provide evidence for
categories created or to determine if
observations are contaminated.
5. Event Analysis/Microanalysis-Emphasis is on
finding precise beginnings and endings of
events by finding specific boundaries and things
that mark boundaries or events. Specifically
oriented toward film and video. After find
boundaries, find phases in event by repeated
viewing.
Formal Analysis of Data
6. Metaphorical Analysis – Examining various
metaphors and determining how they will fit
what is observed.

7. Domain Analysis- Analysis of the language of

people in a cultural context to interrelate
social situations to cultural meanings.

8. Hermeneutical Analysis - Making sense of a

written text by not looking for objective
meaning of text, but meaning of text for people
in situation. Try to bracket self out in analysis -
tell their story, not yours.
Formal Analysis of Data
9. Discourse analysis- Linguistic analysis of
ongoing flow of communication usually using
tapes so they can be played and replayed.
Focus on several people discussing, not
individual person specifically. Find patterns of
questions and other patterns of interaction.

10. Semiotics -Science of signs and symbols that

convey how meanings are constructed.
Formal Analysis of Data
11. Content Analysis – Looking at documents, text,
or speech to see what themes emerge. What do
people talk about the most? See how themes relate
to each other. Find latent emphases, political view
of newspaper writer, which is implicit or look at
surface level - overt emphasis.
12.Phenomenological Analysis- Emphasizes on how
individuals experience the world using bracketing
and reduction.
13. Narrative Analysis – Similar to discourse analysis
but focuses on the individual.
PRESENTATION OF QUALITATIVE DATA

 Qualitative data has several features to take into

consideration when planning the presentation of
findings. The data are subjective, interpretative,
descriptive, holistic and copious and it can be
difficult to know where or how to start. A good
starting point is to look at the themes and
categories which have emerged and to use these
to structure the results section of the research
report.
PRESENTATION OF QUALITATIVE DATA

 This structure can be set out at the beginning, either

as a list or in diagrammatic form. The themes are
then presented in sections with the categories as sub
sections. In this way, the categories of data are used
to construct a case that the themes are the main
findings of the study. Further “evidence” to support
the findings is provided by using direct quotations
from respondents. Key quotations are selected to
illustrate the meaning of the data.
PRESENTATION OF QUALITATIVE DATA
 Consider this example. It shows the part of the
structure of themes and categories which emerged
from an investigation into the need for an outreach
teenage health clinic. Qualitative data has several
features to take into consideration when planning the
presentation of findings. The data are subjective,
interpretative, descriptive, holistic and copious and it
can be difficult to know where or how to start. A good
starting point is to look at the themes and categories
which have emerged and to use these to structure the
results section of the research report.
INTERPRETATION OF QUALITATIVE DATA
 Iftape analysis is used and not transcribed
data, then the counter facility can be useful
because the researcher can listen to the tape
and make a note of the sections which contain
particularly useful information and key
quotations and return to these sections of the
tape for fuller analysis. However, the previously
mentioned problems of bias can occur if
inexperienced qualitative researchers attempt
tape analysis. It is certainly preferable to
produce full transcripts of the first few
interview data. Once the researcher becomes
familiar with the key messages emerging from
the data tape analysis may be possible.
 When people are in conversation only a small proportion
of the message is communicated in the actual words
used. A larger proportion is transmitted in the way people
speak. Tone and inflection are good indicators of a whole
range of feelings and meanings. When transcribing,
consideration should be given to how these feelings and
meanings can be communicated on paper by using
punctuation marks, and techniques such as upper case
lettering, underlining and emboldening.
 Take
the phrase "this was good". These three
words can be said in a variety of ways and mean
something different in every case.
 "He was ALRIGHT" (He was alright, I liked him)

 "HE
was alright" (He was alright but I wasn't so
keen on the others)
 "He
WAS alright" (He used to be but he isn't
now)
 "Hewas alright?" (Well you might think so but I
don't)
By listening and noting the intensity and feeling in
the interviewee's voice it is possible to detect the
following:

 Positive / negative  Whether something was seen

as good or bad.
continuum:

 Certainty /  How sure the interviewee was

about what he said.
uncertainty:

 Enthusiasm /  How happy or supportive the

reluctance: interviewee was about the
topic being discussed.
 Quantitative Data

PRESENTATION •DESCRIPTION

•DESCRIPTIVE
•MEANINGS
•STATISTICAL
•IMPLICATIONS QUANTITATIVE
DATA

INTERPRETATION ANALYSIS
QUALITATIVE DATA
•Context
DESCRIPTION •Intention
•Process

•Open
•Data •Axial
•Author •Selective
•Method •Thematic
QUALITATIVE
•Themes
DATA

CONNECTING: CLASSIFICATION:
TRIANGULATION CODING
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IS

Clear
Concise
Precise - every word used means
exactly what it is intended to mean
Simple - short words are easier to
understand than long ones
Plain language and direct statements
Avoid colloquial expressions
WAYS OF EXPRESSING PERCENTAGES
PERCENTAGE VALUE EXPRESSION

10% one out of 10; 1/10

20% two out of 10; one out of five
25% One out of four; ¼
33% three out of 10; roughly on third
40% Two out of five
50% One out of two; ½, half
51% Majority; most
60% Six out of 10; big majority
67% Two out of three; two thirds
70% Seven out of 10; great majority
75% Three out of four; overwhelming majority
80% Eight out of 10; most of the respondents
90% Almost all of the respondents
100% All the respondents

Highest percentage but plurality

less than 50%
writing in short and simple sentences
produces choppy prose; writing in long
involved sentences creates difficult and
sometimes unreadable material.
vary sentence/paragraph length to
effect a satisfactory balance for
readability and visual relief.
Present ideas and findings in an
interesting and compelling manner
which reflects your involvement with
the problem
Use appropriate transitional
expressions to keep ideas moving in
orderly fashion from one sentence to
another
Continuity, contrast, consequence,
enumeration, or repetition can be cued
by discourse markers such as the
following expressions:
accordingly also likewise besides
nevertheless again therefore further
Moreover still similarly hence
consequently thus to conclude finally
on the whole first to sum up second
notwithstanding on the other hand
The tone of the report should be
formal. It should project a dignified,
impersonal, and carefully polished
style, without being unnatural.
The report should be written in the
second or third person, never in the
first person. The latter makes the style
personal.
 Numbers in sentences should be in
words when they are under 10, but
should be written as figures when
above 10.
 Present a brief resume on the following:
Problems, null hypothesis
respondents
research methods and instruments used
summary of significant findings
organized by topics to jibe with the subject
areas of the study
 Characteristics of Good Conclusions
Agreement with fact
Simplicity of formulation
Verifiability
Conclusions must be
 specific
 based only on the results obtained
 must answer the objectives stated/
questions asked in the statement of the
problem
 complete scientific explanation
 “failures” may have potential value; do
not rationalize
 when no reasons seem to exist, carefully
review the assumptions and postulates
which led to the prediction of the anticipated
results
 clearly state suggestions for
improvements or refinements
 should be supported by sound
reason
 should be appropriate and
helpful
 specific recommendations are
organized according to each of the
problem’s findings and conclusions;
 the general recommendations are
mentioned last; these are:
• suggested actions that maybe taken
by other concerned agencies to
alleviate existing problem situation
• recommendation made on
suggested research studies that
maybe conducted by other interested
writers or researchers.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
What are the ways to avoid
plagiarism?

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

More Specifically: Cite When…

 You use direct quotations

 You use arguable information that is not your opinion
 You use information that is not common knowledge
 The opinions and assertions of others
 Any information you did not generate yourself

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

AUTHOR
Comes FIRST.
Always.
Every Source.
 APA
 MLA
 Last Name, First Initial.
 Last Name, First.
 Tolstoy, L.
 Tolstoy, Leo.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

BOOKS
APA MLA

 Packard, V. (2005) The Hidden  Packard, Vincent. The Hidden

Persuaders. New York: McKay. Persuaders. New York: McKay,
2005. 52-55.

Notice, the date’s placement. Notice the use of capitals and

underlining in the title.
PERIODICALS

APA MLA
 Shute, N. (2007, August 18). Why  Shute, Nancy. “Why Do We Age?”
do we age? U.S. News & World U.S. News & World Report 18 Aug.
Report, 123, 55-57. 2007: 55-57.

Notice the capitalization in article title, and the use of underlining,

and the addition of the volume number.
INTERNET WITH AUTHOR

APA MLA

 Rise, S. (2007,  Rise, Scott. The Bulwer Fiction

Home Page. 7 Sept. 1997. San
September 7).The Bulwer Jose State U. Web. 29 Jan. 2009.
fiction home page. San
Jose State U. Retrieved
January 29, 2009 from
http://www.bulwer.com

Notice date of WWW lookup and style of url address.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

INTERNET WITHOUT AUTHOR
APA MLA
 Fetal Surgery. Mar. 2009. Alliance
 Fetal surgery. (2009, for Women’s Health. Web. 31
March). Alliance for January, 2009.
Women’s Health.
Retrieved January 31,
2009 from
http://www.alliance/fet
al.com
ONLINE JOURNAL

APA MLA
 Herring, S. (2003)
 Herring, Susan. “Gender
Gender and Democracy and Democracy in
in computer-mediated Computer-mediated
communication.
Communication.”
Electronic Journal of Electronic Journal of
Communication, 3.2. Communications 3.2
Retrieved 7 September, (1993). Web. 7 Sept.
2009 from 2007
http://www.cios.org

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

 ACTIVITY
Form a group of 10 members. Choose
a leader and a scribe. Discuss among
group members the process of a
qualitative research. Using a flow chart
of your chosen design, illustrate the
steps and present it to the group.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Philosophy and Qualitative Research
 Frameworks are not used the same as in quantitative
 The goal is not theory testing
 Each study should be guided by a particular philosophical stance

Philosophical Stance assists to:

(a) directs the question(s) that are asked
(b) the observations which are made
(c) the interpretation of data

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Qualitative Designs
PHASES of a Qualitative Study:

Orientation
an overview
Focused exploration
Focused confirmation and
closure
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Qualitative Design Features
Control over the independent
variable
Type of group comparisons
Number of data collection points
Occurrence of the independent
& dependent variables
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
 ACTIVITY
Perform a simulation activity showing a
scenario depicting how data could be
obtained from different sources:
Grp 1- Interview
Grp 2- Focus Group Discussion
Grp 3- Observation
Grp 4- Documents
Grp 5- Social Media/Other Media
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Stages in the Analysis of Qualitative Data
 Stage 1: Immersion
 The researcher intensively reads or listens to material, assimilating as
much of the explicit and implicit meaning as possible
 Stage 2: Categorization
 Systematically working through the data, assigning coding categories or
identifying meanings within the various segments / units of the ’text’
 Stage 3: Reduction
 questioning or interrogating the meanings or categories that have been
developed? Are there other ways of looking at the data? Do some codes
mean the same thing?
 Stage 4: Triangulation
 sorting through the categories. Deciding which categories are recurring
and central and which are less significant or are invalid or mistaken
 Stage 5: Interpretation
 making sense of the data from a wider perspective. Constructing a
model or using an established theory to explicate the findings of the
study

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

EDUC 7741/Paris/Terry
Developing Descriptions & Themes from
the Data (case study approach)

 Coding data
 Developing a description from the data
 Defining themes from the data
 Connecting and interrelating themes

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

 Making comparisons with the Literature

 Interpret the data in view of past research

 Show how the findings both support and contradict prior studies
 “These findings are consistent with other studies in regard to duration. It has been found
that the length or duration of service learning projects has an impact on student outcomes,
with the longer duration projects having greater impacts. However, significant differences
are not found in projects lasting over 18 weeks (Conrad & Hedin, 1981). The project on
which this study focused was examined over a year and a half period of time; thus it is
considered to be long in duration which helps to explain its impact on student outcomes.”

EDUC 7741/Paris/Terry
 ACTIVITY
Form a group of 10 members.
Discuss among group members possible
conclusions and recommendations out of
the given findings. Using a prescribed
template, write down the formulated
conclusions and recommendations.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

FINDINGS CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

 ACTIVITY
Do a mock oral presentation based
from the previous activity Create an
assessment tool in evaluating the
research output. Include criteria for
both paper and oral presentation.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

 Activity
Craft a lesson log on Practical
Research 1 by selecting one
competency from quarter 2.
Incorporate appropriate pedagogy
and assessment
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT