In this section we briefly study the way our

knowledge of atomic structure helps us to

understand the physical and chemical
properties of the elements. Our discussion is
based on the following two principles
1. Filled subshells are normally very stable
configurations. An atom with one electron
beyond a filled shell will readily give up that
electron to another atom to form a chemical
bond. Similarly, an atom lacking one electron
from a filled shell will readily accept an
additional electron from another atom in
forming a chemical bond.
2. Filled subshells do not normally contribute to
the chemical or physical properties of an atom.
Only the electrons in the unfilled subshells need
be considered. Sometimes only a single outer
electron is the primary factor influencing the
physical properties of an element.
We consider a number of different physical
properties of the elements, and try to understand
those properties based on atomic theory.
1. Atomic Radii. The radius of an atom is not a
precisely defined quantity, because the electron
probability density determines the“size”of an
atom.The radii are also difficult to define
experimentally, and in fact different kinds of
experiments may give different values for the radii.
One way of defining the radius is by means of the
spacing between the atoms in a crystal containing
that element. Figure 8.7 shows how such typical
atomic radii vary with Z.
2. lonization Energy.
Table 8.3 gives the
ionization energies of
some of the elements, and
Figure 8.8 shows the
variation of ionization
energy with atomic
number Z.
3. Electrical Resistivity. In bulk materials, an electric current flows
when a potential difference (voltage) is applied across the
material. The current i and voltage V are related according to the
expression V =iR, where R is the electrical resistance of the
material. If the material is uniform with length L and cross-
sectional area A, then the resistance is

(8.2)
The resistivity ρ is characteristic of the kind of material and is
measured in units of (ohm·meter). A good electrical conductor has
a small resistivity (ρ =1.7×10−8 m for copper); a poor conductor
has a large resistivity (ρ =2×1015 ohm.m for sulfur). From the
atomic point of view, current depends on the movement of
relatively loosely bound electrons,which can be removed from their
atoms by the applied potential difference, and also on the ability of
the electrons to travel from one atom to another. Thus elements
with s electrons, which are the least tightly bound and which also
travel farthest from the nucleus, are expected to have small
resistivities. Figure 8.9 shows the variation of electrical resistivity
with atomic number.
4. Magnetic Susceptibility. When a material is placed in a
magnetic field of intensity B, the material becomes
“magnetized” and acquires a magnetization M, which for
many materials is proportional to B:
μ0M = χB (8.3)
where χ is a dimensionless constant called the magnetic
susceptibility. (Materials for which χ >0 are known as
paramagnetic, and those for which χ<0 are called
diamagnetic; materials that remain permanently
magnetized even when B is removed are known as
ferromagnetic, and χ is undefined for such materials.)
 Inert Gases
The inert gases occupy the last column of the periodic table.
Because they have only filled subshells, the inert gases do not
generally combine with other elements to form compounds;
these elements are very reluctant to give up or to accept an
electron. At room temperature they are monatomic gases. Their
atoms don’t easily join together, so the boiling points are very
low (typically−200◦C). Their ionization energies are much
larger than those of neighboring elements, because of the extra
energy needed to break open a filled subshell.
 p -Subshell Elements
The elements of the column (group) next to the inert
gases are the halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, At). These atoms
lack one electron from a closed shell and have the
configuration np5. A filled p subshell is a very stable
configuration, so these elements readily form
compounds with other atoms that can provide an extra
electron to complete the p subshell. The halogens are
therefore extremely reactive.
 s -Subshell Elements
The elements of the first two columns (groups) are
known as the alkalis (configuration ns1) and alkaline
earths (ns2). The single s electron makes the alkalis
quite reactive. The alkaline earths are similarly reactive,
in spite of the filled s subshell. This occurs because the s
electron wave functions can extend rather far from the
nucleus, where the electrons are screened (by Z−2 other
electrons) from the nuclear charge and therefore not
tightly bound.
 Transition Metals
The three rows of elements in which the d subshell is
filling (Sc to Zn, Y to Cd, Lu to Hg) are known as the
transition metals. Many of their chemical properties are
determined by the outer electrons—those whose wave
functions extend furthest from the nucleus. For the
transition metals,these are always s electrons,which
have a larger mean radius than the d electrons.
 Lanthanides (Rare Earths)
The lanthanide (or rare earth) elements are contained in the
series of 14 elements from La to Yb; this series is usually
drawn at the bottom of the periodic chart of the elements. The
rare earths are rather similar to the transition metals in that an
“inner” subshell (the 4f) is being filled after an “outer” subshell
(the 6s) is already filled. For the same reasons discussed above,
the chemical properties of the rare earths should be rather
similar, because they are determined mainly by the 6s
electrons; the radii and ionization energies show that this is
true.
 Actinides
The actinide series of elements, which corresponds to the
filling of the 5f subshell, is usually shown in the periodic table
directly under the lanthanide series. These elements should
have chemical and physical properties similar to those of the
rare earths. Unfortunately, most of the actinide elements (those
beyond uranium) are radioactive and do not occur in nature.
They are artificially produced elements and are available only
in microscopic quantities. We are thus unable to determine
many of their bulk properties