We live in a world of mysteries where this drives our thoughts to more mathematics.

If
our world is real then our mathematics becomes real.
 
Henry H. Radamson
 Quantum mechanics, The best theory in Science

The atomic Molecular Semiconductor The galaxy

structures bonding in Physics
DNA
 Quantum Physics

Quantum Physics: It is a branch of physics which is based on the

interpretation of quantum theory.

The main points of this theory are following:

1. Energy described in atomic levels is in discrete units
2. The elementary particles have both wave and particle like behavior
3. The existence of an electron particle in an atom is descried by a probability
distribution function
4. It is impossible to measure both position and momentum of a particle at the
same time.

The term quantum mechanics was proposed by Max Born in 
1924 which decribes the behavior of matters according to the 
mathematical equations. 
 Why quantum mechanics
The classic Physics fails to explain the atomic scale dimensions.
Three main examples are following:

1. Black body radiation

2. Photoelectric effect
3. Spectral lines of gases
 Radiation of black body

In physics, a black body is related to an object which absorbs the incident light.
This means that no electromagnetic radiation is transmitted or reflected then
the object appears black when it is cold.

Hot metals glow yellow-orange of the thermal radiation due to the high
temperature.
 Rayleigh-Jeans theory

The energy density u(ν, T) can be obtained from the following expression:
u(ν, T) = ( degree of freedom for frequency) x (average energy/degree of freedom)

Average energy is calculated as following:

The Rayleigh Jeans formula is the number of degrees of freedom per

frequency. Then the energy density is written as:

8π ν2
u (ν , T ) = 3 kT
c
 Rayleigh-Jeans ultraviolet catastrophe

8π ν2
u (ν , T ) = 3 kT
c

Planck’s energy density of blackbody radiation versus wavelength for different

temperatures.
 Plank’s theory

14 December 1900

If this result is integrated in Rayleigh-Jean law then:

Further results from Plank’s theory

Wien’s displacement law

 Further results from Plank’s theory

This is Stefan-Boltzman law which is the principle of thermometry

technique which is used for optical pyrometer or luminosity technique to
determine the temperature of stars.
 Photoelectric effect
Electric discharge become stronger between two electrodes when ultraviolet light
is emitted on one of the electrodes.

The classical electromagnetic theory fails to explain the photoelectric phenomena

due to three reasons:

1. The current of photoelectric electrons does not increase when the beam is
more intense.
2. There is a specific cut-off frequency for all different light frequencies.
3. There is no incubation time for the ejection of the electrons from the surface of
metal electrode. Whereas classical wave theory proposes certain energy
amount per area is necessary to be absorbed by the electrons and electrons
accumulate enough energy to escape from the metal surface.
 Photoelectric effect
There is a workfunction (wm) for the electrons to leave the metal
surface.
The energy of photoelectron is
independent on the intensity of
illumination
Stopping potential

f0

Frequency

Ekin = kinetic energy of the

ejected electrons
 Rydberg model

Johannes Rydberg has observed the spectra of hydrogen and established a

mathematical expression to obtain the λ for each color:
 Bohr model
Bohr postulated that hydrogen atom has stationary orbits which are
determined from the fact that the angular momentum of the electron is
quantized.

There is equilibrium between the coulomb and

centripetal forces
 Questions & comments

We have explained the stability of hydrogen atom. 

Can we apply the Bohr model for other elements in the periodic table?
 Schrödinger equation (modern quantum mechanics)

2 2 δ ψ1 ( x, t )
− ∇ ψ ( x , t ) + Vψ ( x , t ) = i 
2m δt

-The electron orbits are not circular

-Electrons are defined by wavefunctions which are the solutions till the above 
equation.

-The existance of an electron is proportional to the wavefunction’s square.
-Pauli principles

***Carbon has 6 protoner/neutroner, 
***The 6 protoner in the nuclus will repel themselves strongly.
how can the atom be stable?
 The fundamental forces

There are four fundamental interaction or fundamental force which 
elementary particles interact 

.
it holds only inside the nucleus

Strong interaction : gluons

Weak interaction : beta decay
n0 → p+ + e− + νe
 Fermions & Leptons
Fermion: are the protons and neutrons which make up most of the
mass of the visible matter in the universe, whereas electrons (the
other major component of atoms) are leptons.

fermions are particles which obey Fermi-Dirac statistics;

where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is the absolute temperature, is the

energy of the single-particle state i, and is the chemical potential.

Leptons, are electrons not composed of quarks and as such do not 
participate in the strong interaction. 
Like leptons are fermions (spin-1⁄2 particles) and are subject to the 
electromagnetic force, the gravitational force, and weak interaction. 
But unlike quarks, leptons do not participate in the 
strong interaction
 Bosons

The W bosons are best known for its role in nuclear decay
Two kinds of W bosons exist with +1 and −1 elementary units of
electric charge; the W+ is the antiparticle of the W−. The Z boson (or Z)
is electrically neutral and is its own antiparticle. All three particles are
very short-lived with a mean life of about 3×10−25 s.

In contrast to bosons, which have Bose-Einstein statistics,

ni is the number of particles in state i

gi is the degeneracy of state i
εi is the energy of the ith state
μ is the chemical potential
k is Boltzmann's constant
T is absolute temperature
 Quarks

n0 → p+ + e− + νe

12 quarks - 6 particles (u · d · s · c · b · t) with 6 corresponding

antiparticles (u · d · s · c · b · t);