Ece414 Chapter3 w12

Chapter 3
Bandpass Transmission Techniques

for Wireless Communication
ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012 1

Outline
 Introduction to Digital Communications
 Signal (Vector) Space Representations
 Digital Modulation Schemes (M-ASK, M-PSK, M-FSK)
 Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes
- Bandwidth (spectral) efficiency
- Power efficiency
- Temporal characteristics (e.g., dynamic power range, peak/average ratio)
 Power Spectral Density of Digital Modulation Schemes
 Error Rate Performance of Digital Modulation Schemes
 Comparison of Digital Modulation Schemes in terms of Spectral
Efficiency and Power Efficiency
 Temporally Efficient Digital Modulation Schemes

Block Diagram for a Digital Communication System
Original
message signal Source Channel
(analog) A/D Modulator
Encoder Encoder
Channel
Recovered
message Source Channel De-
D/A
signal Decoder Decoder modulator
(analog)
 Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion: Analog (i.e., continuous-time

continuous-amplitude) message signal is converted into a discrete-time discrete-
amplitude digital signals by time-sampling and amplitude-quantization. The
resulting signals are then mapped to binary sequences.

Block Diagram for a Digital Communication System (cont’d)
 Source Encoding: Removes the redundant information embedded in the
message signal, therefore represents the message with as few binary digits as
possible, i.e., data compression
 Channel Encoding: Introduces redundancy in a “controlled” manner which
can be used at the receiver to overcome the effects of noise, interference and fading.
Provides “noise immunity” to transmitted information.
Source coding and channel coding will not be studied in this course…
 Modulation: Converts (maps) codewords to high-frequency analog waveforms.
A certain parameter of the carrier signal (i.e., modulated signal) is varied in
accordance with message signal (i.e. modulating signal) e.g. amplitude shift keying
(ASK), phase shift keying (PSK), frequency shift keying (FSK)
 Receiver Blocks: Perform the inverse of the transmitter operations in order to
recover the original analog message (continuous-time continuous-amplitude) signal.
In a practical digital communication receiver, there are also additional sub-blocks
such as channel estimation, synchronization (frame/frequency/phase),
authentications, crypto, multiplexing, etc.
Why is Modulation Required?
Modulatio shifts the baseband signal to a higher frequency band, centered at the
so-called “carrier frequency”.
 To achieve easy radiation: Dimensions of the transmit/receive antennas are

limited by the corresponding wavelength. The frequency conversion allows the
use of practical antenna lengths.
 To accommodate for simultaneous transmission of several baseband
signals: Simultaneous transmission of different baseband signals which are
possibly overlapping can be facilitated by assigning slightly different frequency
carriers for each one.
 Large bandwidths require high carrier frequencies: Practical requirements

in front-end filter design dictates the bandwidth-to-frequency carrier ratio (i.e.,
fractional bandwidth) be kept within a certain range.
B B
0.01   0.1 : Fractional bandwidth
fc fc

Why is Modulation Required? (cont’d)
 High-rate transmission requires larger bandwidths (therefore, higher
carrier frequencies): According to Shannon Theorem, channel capacity is
defined as the maximum achievable information rate that can be transmitted
over the channel. For the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel,
C  B  log 2 1  SNR 
Channel capacity Bandwidth Signal-to-noise ratio
 To (possibly) expand the bandwidth of the transmitted signal for

better transmission quality: When the bandwidth increases, the required
SNR (for fixed noise level, corresponding signal power) to achieve a specific
transmission rate decreases
C
C  B  log 2 1  SNR   SNR  2  1 B

Signal-Space Representations
 Consider a modulation format where the transmitted signal waveforms belong to
the modulation set  sm  t   m1 0  t  Ts .
M
 Each of the waveform can be represented as a point (vector) in an N-dimensional

signal space (sometimes called as vector space) defined by the orthonormal basis
    
functions n n1 N  M
t N
Ts
0 i  t  *j  t  dt    i  j 
Ts N
s m, n   s m  t  n*  t  dt  s t    sm,nn  t 
0 n 1
sm  t   s m   sm,1 , sm, 2 ,..., sm, N 
 The Gram-Schmidt procedure (See Appendix A of the textbook) provides a

systematic approach to construct the set of orthonormal functions, which span the
signal space.
Signal-Space Representations (cont’d)
sm  t   sm   sm,1 , sm, 2 ,..., sm, N 
Ts N
 Energy Es  2
 sm  t dt   sm2 ,n  sm 2
0 n1
sk  t   sk   sk ,1 , sk , 2 ,..., sk , N  k , l  m  1,2,...M 
sl  t   sl   sl ,1 , sl , 2 ,..., sl , N 
Ts N
1
dt = sk, sl =sk ×sl =å sk,ns*l,n
*
 Correlation sk ( t) , sl ( t) =
Ts
òs ( t) s ( t)
k l
0 n=1
Ts N
 Euclidean 2 2
d ( sk ( t) , sl ( t) ) = ò sk ( t) - sl ( t) dt =d ( sk, sl ) =å sk,n - sl,n
2 2
Distance 0 n=1

M-ary Amplitude Shift Keying (M-ASK)
sm  t   Am cos 2f ct  Am    2m  1  M  , m  1,2...M  0  t  Ts
 Baseband (Equivalent Lowpass) Representation
 
sm  t   Am cos 2f ct   Re Am e j 2fct  sm,lp  t   Am
 Basis Function(s) (Obtained through Gram-Schmidt procedure)
 2 Ts cos 2f ct  , 0  t  Ts
t  
0, otherwise
 Signal-Space (Vector Space) Representation (Obtained through the use of
basis functions)
sm  t   sm   Am Ts 2  1-dimensional
Ts
 Signal Energy Esm   sm2  t dt  Am2 Ts 2
0
M-ASK (cont’d)
Examples of M-ASK M=4

Signal Constellations
Bandpass Modulation Signal
11 10 00 01
Equivalent Lowpass Signal

M-ary Phase Shift Keying (M-PSK)
sm  t   A cos 2f ct   m   m   2  m  1 M , m  1,2...M  0  t  Ts
 
sm  t   A cos 2f ct   m   Re Ae j m e j 2fct  sm,lp  t   Ae j m
 Basis Functions
 2 Ts cos 2f ct  , 0  t  Ts  2 Ts sin  2f c t  , 0  t  Ts
1  t    2  t   
0, otherwise 0, otherwise
 Signal-Space Representation
sm  t   s m   A Ts 2 cos  m  , A Ts 2 sin   m   2-dimensional

Ts
 Signal Energy Esm  Es   sm2  t dt  A2Ts 2
0

Example: Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
1  s1  t   A cos 2f ct 
0  s2  t   A cos 2f ct   
Signal-Space Representation Bandpass Modulation Signal

2  t  1 0 1 1 0
A
t
-A
1  t 
 Es Es
Equivalent Lowpass Signal
s1   Es ,0
1 0 1 1 0
A
s 2    Es ,0 t
-A

Example: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
00  s1  t   A cos 2f c t   s1   Es ,0
01  s2  t   A cos 2f c t   2   s 2   0, Es 
10  s3  t   A cos 2f ct     s 3    Es ,0
11  s4  t   A cos 2f c t  3 2   s 4   0, Es 
Signal-Space 2  t 
Representation Es
 Es Es
1  t 
 Es

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
sm  t   Am,r cos 2f ct   Am,i sin  2f c t  m  1,2,...M 0  t  Ts
Am,r, Am,i: Information-bearing signal amplitudes of the quadrature carriers
Alternatively, QAM can be considered as a combination of ASK and PSK.
sm  t   Am cos 2f ct   m  where m  1,2,...M 0  t  Ts
Am  Am2 ,r  Am2 ,i  m  arctg  Am,i Am,r 
Examples of QAM
Signal Constellations

QAM (cont’d)

sm  t   Am,r cos 2f ct   Am,i sin  2f ct   Re  Am,r  jAm,i  e j 2fct 
 sm,lp  t   Am,r  jAm,i  Am e jarctg  m 
 Basis Functions
 2 Ts cos 2f ct  , 0  t  Ts  2 Ts sin  2f c t  , 0  t  Ts
1  t    2  t   
0, otherwise 0, otherwise
 Signal-Space Representation
sm  t   s m   Am,r Ts 2 , Am,i Ts 2  2-dimensional
 Signal Energy
 
Ts
E sm   sm2  t dt  Am2 ,r  Am2 ,i Ts 2
0

M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (M-FSK)
sm  t   A cos 2  f c  f m  t  f m   mf , m  1,2...M  0  t  Ts
 
sm  t   A cos 2  f c  f m  t   Re Ae j 2fmt e j 2fct  sm,lp  t   Ae j 2fmt
 Cross Correlation
1 Ts j 2  k l  ft sin T  k  l  f  jT  k l  f

 k ,l  e dt  e
Ts 0 T  k  l  f
sin 2T  k  l  f 
 k ,l 
2T  k  l  f
For f  1 2T and k  l   k ,l  0
Therefore, the minimum frequency separation between adjacent signals for
orthogonality of the M signals is f  1 2T
M-FSK (cont’d)
 Assuming frequency separation f  1 2T , the signal-space representation
for the M-FSK signals are given as N-dimensional vectors, where N=M.
 2 Ts cos 2  f c  f m  t  , 0  t  Ts
m  t   
0, otherwise
s1  t   s1   Es 0 0 ...... 0
s2  t   s 2   0 Es 0 ...... 0
.
.
.
sM  t   s M   0 0 0 ...... Es 
Ts
where Esm  Es   sm  t dt  A Ts 2
2 2
0

Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes
 Bandwidth (spectral) efficiency: How much bandwidth is needed for a
given data rate?
 s : Bandwidth efficiency
Rs log 2 M Ts
s    Bits/sec/Hz Rs : Data rate W : Bandwidth
W W
 The bandwidth depends on the modulation scheme and pulse shaping. Power
spectral density (PSD) is typically used to determine the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal. There are various definitions for bandwidth:
• Main lobe (null-to-null) bandwidth: The width of the main spectral lobe.
• Fractional power-containment bandwidth: The frequency interval that
contains (1-ε) of the total signal power, e.g. 99.9% of the total power.
• Bounded PSD bandwidth: The frequency interval where the PSD stays
above a prescribed certain threshold, e.g. sidelobes peaks 40 dB below its
maximum value
 Roughly speaking, bandwidth of the modulation scheme is proportional to
the dimension number.
Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes (cont’d)
 Power efficiency: How much power is needed for reliable transmission with a
specified fidelity?
 The fidelity for a digital communication system is usually measured in terms of

symbol- or bit-error probability. For a given SNR, we aim to achieve a low error
probability (how low? it depends on the application).
 Symbol error probability (SEP) is in general easier to evaluate. Bit error

probability (BEP) depends on the mapping of source bits onto modulation signals.
A bound on BEP is given as
P e 
 Pb  e   P e 
log 2 M
 Two common mapping forms are “natural mapping” and “Gray mapping”.
In Gray mapping, the neighbour points differ in only one digit. It should be
noted that Gray mapping is not possible for every signal constellation.

Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes (cont’d)
 Temporal efficiency: How wide are the time variations of the transmitted signal?
Temporal efficiency=Peak power/Average power
The choice of amplifier depends on the temporal characteristics of the signal.
 Other considerations:
• Hardware/software implementation complexity & cost of implementation
• Sensitivity to interference
• Robustness to impairments encountered in a wireless channel
 In most practical scenarios, these performance measures conflict with each

other. The communication system designer should be able to find the best “trade-
off” for a given application under specific constraints.

Comparison of Spectral Efficiency of Modulation Schemes
 M-PSK and QAM  M-FSK
log 2 M
Data rate 
log 2 M
 bits/sec Data rate   bits/sec
T T
M
2
BW null  to  null   Hz  
BW roughly   Hz
T 2T
Data rate 1 Data rate 2 log 2 M
hs = = log 2 M [ bits/sec/Hz] hs = = [ bits/sec/Hz]
BW 2 BW M
M: “Modulation order”, “Constellation size”

Power Spectral Density (PSD)
 In practical, pulse shaping should be considered for a precise bandwidth
measurement and considered in the spectral efficiency calculations.
 Power spectral density (PSD) describes the distribution of signal power in
the frequency domain. If the baseband equivalent of the transmitted signal
sequence is given as

g  t    ak p t  kTs  ak : Baseband modulation symbol
k  Ts : Signal interval p t  : Pulse shape
then the PSD of g(t) is given as
1
g  f   P f   a  f 
2
where P f   F  p t  
Ts 
 a  f    Ra  n e  j 2fnTs
See Ch.4 of Digital Communications
1 n é * ù
by Proakis for the proof Ra ( n) = E ëakak+nû
2
Example: PSD of BPSK with Rectangle Pulse Shaping
 Baseband equivalent of BPSK sequence

g  t    ak p t  kTs  ak    A Independent data symbols are assumed
k 
 Autocorrelation of data sequence
Ra  n   E  ak ak* n  
 
 E ak2 , n  0  A2 , n  0

 
 E  ak  E ak* n , n  0 0, n  0

 a  f   F  Ra  n     Ra  n e  j 2fnTs  A2
n 
 Pulse shaping
æt- Ts / 2 ö FT
p(t) p( t) =Õ
- j 2 p f ( Ts 2)
ç ÷¬ ¾ ® P ( f ) =Tssinc ( fTs ) e
è Ts ø
t P ( f ) =Tssinc ( fTs )
T/2 T

Example: PSD of BPSK with Rectangle Pulse Shaping (cont’d)
 PSD of baseband BPSK sequence

2
P( f)
F g( f ) = F a ( f ) =A2Tssinc 2 ( fTs )
Ts

Example: PSD of BPSK with Rectangle Pulse Shaping (cont’d)
 Bandpass BPSK sequence and its Fourier transform (spectral density)
 S  f   G  f  f c   G *   f  f c   See
s t   Re g  t  e j 2fct  
FT 1
2 Tutorial 1
 PSD of bandpass BPSK sequence
s  f  
1
4

 g  f  f c   *g   f  f c  
See Ch.4 of Digital Communications
by Proakis for the proof
1 1
 A2Ts sinc 2   f  f c Ts   A2Ts sinc 2   f  f c Ts 
4 4
Null-to-null bandwidth

Example: PSD of QAM with Rectangle Pulse Shaping
 Baseband equivalent of QAM sequence

g  t     ak  jbk  p t  kTs  ak , bk    A,3 A
k  
 Autocorrelation of data sequence

Ra  n   E   ak  jbk  ak  n  jbk  n  


 E ak  jbk 2 ,  n  0 10 A2 , n  0

 E   ak  jbk  ak  n  jbk  n  , n  0 0, n0
 PSD of baseband QAM sequence Note that PSD of QAM has the
same general form as BPSK.
 g  f   10 A2Tsinc 2  fT 
 PSD of bandpass QAM sequence

10 2 10
s  f   A Ts sinc 2   f  f c  Ts   A2Ts sinc 2   f  f c  Ts 
4 4
Some Practical Pulse Shapes
Below are some pulse shapes commonly used in communication systems:
 Half-Sinusoid Pulse
 t 
p t   A sin  , 0  t  T
T 
AT  jfT   1  1 
 
P f  e sinc fT -   sinc fT  
2   2  2 
 Full-Cosine Pulse
A  t 
p t   1  cos  0  t  T
2  T 
AT  jfT
 
P f  e  2sinc fT   sinc fT  1  sinc fT  1 
4

Some Practical Pulse Shapes (cont’d)
 Gaussian Pulse
 2 2   T   2  A  jfT ln 2  ln 2  f  2 
p t   A exp   B t     P f   e exp    
 ln 2   2    T 2  2 B 
 
where B is defined as the “3dB bandwidth of pulse”
 Raised Cosine Pulse
sin  t T  cos t T  0  1

 
pt  α: Roll-off factor
t T 1  4 t T2 2 2
 1   
T , 0  f 
2T

T  T  1     1    1   
P f    1  cos  f   ,  f 
2
    2 T  2T 2T
 1   
0 , f 
 2T
Comparison of Pulse Shapes
Time-Domain
Square
Full-cosine
Half-sinusoid
Gaussian

Comparison of Pulse Shapes (cont’d)
Frequency-Domain
Full-cosine • Square
Half-sinusoid
BW=2/T
Gaussian
• Half-sinusoid
Square BW=3/T
• Full-cosine
BW=4/T
2/T
3/T
4/T
Comparison of Pulse Shapes (cont’d)
Raised Cosine
0  1
α: Roll-off factor
1 
BW 
T
1 2
 BW 
T T
1/T
2/T
Optimum Receiver for AWGN
 For a given SNR (i.e. a given signal power for fixed noise power), we aim to
achieve a low error probability. To calculate error probability, first we need to
identify the receiver structure.
 The receiver consists of a demodulator and a detector:
• The demodulator converts the received waveform r(t) into a N dimensional
vector r   r1 , r2 ,...rN  where N is the dimension of the signal-space for the
given modulation type.
• The detector decides which of the possible M signal waveforms was
transmitted based on r, where M is the constellation size.
sm  t  r t  r ŝm
Demodulator Detector
n t  r  t   sm  t   n t   r  s m  n

Optimum Receiver for AWGN (cont’d)
Correlation-type demodulator Matched-filter demodulator
For details, see Proakis’ Digital Communications Chapter 5

 We want to design a signal detector that makes a decision based on the
observation of the vector r such that the probability of a correct decision is
maximized. The optimal decision rule is based on the maximization of so-called
“a posteriori probabilities”
p  s m r  : The probability of choosing sm m=1,2…M based on the observation of r
This decision criterion is called the Maximum A Posteriori Probability (MAP) rule.
max p s m r 
m1, 2...M
Bayes Theorem
p r s m  p s m 
 max
m1, 2...M p r  p r  : Common for all
 max p r s m  p s m 
m1, 2...M p s m   1 M, i.e. Equally probable
 max p r s m  messages
m1, 2...M
 The conditional pdf p r s m  is called the likelihood function and the decision
criterion based on the maximization of p r s m  over the M signals is called the
maximum likelihood (ML) criterion.
r  sm  n
 For an AWGN channel, the components of the noise vector n are zero-
mean Gaussian random variables with variance N0/2
1  nk2  1  nk2 
f  nk   exp  2   exp  

k  1,2...N
2 2
 2   2  N0 2
N 0  N0 
 The received signal will have a Gaussian conditional distribution
p r s m    p  rk sm,k    f  rk  sm,k 
N N
k 1 k 1
1  1 2
 rk  sm,k  
N
 exp 
k 1 N 0  N0 
1  1 N 2
 
exp    rk  sm,k  
 N 0  N 2
 N 0 k 1 

 The ML rule is then given as
max p r s m   min   rk  sm,k  2  min r  s m

N 2
“Distance” metrics
m m k 1 m
 The ML receiver decides in favor of the signal which is closest in Euclidean

distance to the received vector, r.
 Expanding the decision rule,
min r  s m
m
2
 2
 min r  2 r  s m  s m
m
2

2
where Em  s m is the signal energy. Neglecting terms which do not affect
the decision and under the assumption that constant-energy modulation set
(e.g. PSK) is used
2
min r  s m  max r  s m “Correlation” metrics
m m

Example: Error Probability for BPSK
b  0  s1  t   A cos 2f ct  1  where 1  0
b  1  s2  t   A cos 2f ct   2  where  2  
s1  t   A cos 2f ct   2 E T cos 2f c t  s2  t    s1  t 

s2  t    A cos 2f ct    2 E T cos 2f ct  i.e. antipodal signaling
Unlike other M-PSK for M>2, we can represent this special form of BPSK
signal as 1-dimensional signal. The basis function is given as
 2 T cos 2f c t  , 0  t  T
1  t   
0, otherwise
Therefore, the optimal receiver has the following form of
r t  T r Euclidean
  .dt Distance
0 Decoder
1  t 
Example: Error Probability for BPSK (cont’d)
Assume s1(t) is sent. Under the assumption of AWGN, the received signal
r  t   s1  t   w t 
The output of demodulator

T T
 r  t 1  t dt    s1  t   w t  1  t  dt  E  n
0 0
where
def T
n   w t 1  t  dt ~ N  0, N 0 2 
0
Assume s2(t) is sent. The output of demodulator is now

T
 r  t 1  t dt   E  n
0

Example: Error Probability for BPSK
Decision regions
b0 E 0
bˆ  1 bˆ  0 r  0
b 1  E 1
 E E
Here we have two possible alternatives, therefore we can use a “zero threshold
detector” as an optimal detector.
Let P(e) denote the error probability
  
P e   P bˆ  0, b  1  P bˆ  1, b  0 
Bayes Theorem
   
 P bˆ  0 b  1 P b  1  P bˆ  1b  0 P b  0 
P b  0  P b  1  1 / 2 Equally probable messages

 
P e   P bˆ  0 b  1
  
P bˆ  0 b  1  P bˆ  1b  0  Due to symmetry
Under the assumption that b=1 is sent r   E  z

 

P b  0 b  1  P  r  0 b  1   f  r b  1dr
ˆ
0
Example: Error Probability for BPSK (cont’d)
 E E
 

P bˆ  0 b  1   f  r b  1dr
0
1   r  E 2 
  exp  dr
N 0 0  N 0  r E
y
N0 2
1   y2 
  exp  dy
2 2 E N0  2 
 2E 
 Q 
 N0 
1   y2 2
where Q-function is defined as Q x   e dy
2 x

Example: Error Probability for QPSK
00  s1  t   A cos 2f c t   2 Ts cos 2f ct  , 0  t  Ts
1  t   
01  s2  t   A cos 2f ct   2  0, otherwise
10  s3  t   A cos 2f c t  3 2
 2 Ts sin  2f c t  , 0  t  Ts
11  s4  t   A cos 2f c t  2  2  t   
0, otherwise
T
  .dt Detector
0
r t  1  t  sˆ  min r  sm
2
m1, 2,3, 4
T
  .dt
0
2  t 

Example: Error Probability for QPSK (cont’d)
 Under the assumption of AWGN (which exhibits symmetry), rotating and

moving the signal constellation does not change the error probability. Therefore,
we can rotate/move our signal constellation in such a way that the resulting
constellation allows easy mathematical derivation.
 Here, we move our constellation as the “target” signal is located on the origin.
If there is no symmetry in the signal constellation, this should be repeated for
each signal.
Decision
regions
 First, we calculate P(c), i.e. the probability of making a correct decision. Then,
probability of error is simply found as P(e)=1-P(c).
 Assume that the signal located at the origin has been transmitted. If the
received signal is in the shaded area, this means we will make a correct
decision.
def T
d  2 Es nI   w t 1  t  dt ~ N  0, N 0 2 
d 2
d 0
def T
d 2 nQ   w t 2  t  dt ~ N  0, N 0 2 
0
P  c s1   P     nI  d 2,  nQ  d 2
 P    nI  d 2 P     nQ  d 2      
P n    Q 
2
  


 Q 
Es 
 
n ~ N  , 2 
 N0 
Q     1  Q  
2
  Es 
 1  Q 
  N 0 

Due to symmetry,
P c   P c s1   P c s2   P c s3   P c s4 
2
 Es    Es  
P e   1  P c   2Q   Q 
 N 0    N 0 
Es  2 Eb
2
 2 Eb    2 Eb 
 2Q   Q 
 N0    N0 

Example: Error Probability for BFSK
  1     1 
0  s1  t   A cos 2  f c  t  1  s2  t   A cos 2  f c  t 
  2T     T 
T
  .dt Detector
0
r t  1  t  sˆ  min r  sm
2
m1, 2,3, 4
T
  .dt
0
2  t 
 2 Ts cos 2  f c  1 2T  t  , 0  t  Ts
1  t   
0, otherwise
 2 Ts cos 2  f c  1 T  t  , 0  t  Ts
2  t   
0, otherwise
Example: Error Probability for BFSK (cont’d)
2  t 
d  2 Es By rotation, it can be easily shown that
Es
 Es 
P e   Q 
Es
1  t   N0 
 Now, we will study the same problem without rotation:

Assume s1  t   s1   Es ,0 was sent. The received signal is r   Es  nI , nQ 
 max r  s m 
2
Decision is based on min r  s m
m m
 Es 
P e s1   P r  s 2  r  s1   P  nQ  nI  Es   P  n  Es   Q
 
 N0 
def
nQ , nI ~ N  0, N 0 2 n  nQ  nI ~ N  0, N 0 
 Es 
Due to symmetry, P e   P e s1   Q 
 N0 
A Union Bound on Error Probability
 In most cases, probability of error can not be obtained in closed form.
Therefore, one needs to find some bounds or approximations which can work for
any signal constellation.
 We have already shown that the optimal decoder for any signal constellation
2
over AWGN is given by the Euclidean distance decoder, i.e. d m  r  s m
M 1 M
P e    P e s m P s m    P e s m  P  e s m  : Probability of making a
m1 M m1 decision error when sm was sent
M 
P  e s m   P  dl  d m  s m 
 Union Bound (U-B)
 l 1 
 l m   
M
P  Ai    P Ai 
   P d l  d m  s m  i  i
l 1
l l P s m  s l  : The probability of choosing sl
M
   P s m  sl  s m  instead of the originally transmitted sm
l 1
l l

A Union Bound on Error Probability (cont’d)
M M d 
P  e s m     P  s m  s l  s m    Q l ,m 
2
where d l ,m  s l  s m
l 1 l 1  2  N
l m l m  2 0
2
U B M  d l ,m 
U-B: Union Bound   Q 
l 1  2 N 0   x2 / 2
l m Q x   e
dl2,m
UB  B M 
UB-B: Union- 4 N0
 e
Bhattacharyya Bound l 1
l m
 Assuming equal-probable message signals, the probability of error is
1 M 1 M M  d l ,m 
P e    P e s m     Q 
M m1 M m1 l 1  2 N 0 
l m

A Union Bound on Error Probability (cont’d)
 The U-B requires the computation of all distances dl,m among signals in
the constellation. A looser bound can be obtained as follows
U B M  d   d  “Minimum Euclidean
P e s m    Q l ,m    M  1 Q min 
l 1  2 N 0   2N0  distance” bound
l m
where d min  min d l ,m is the minimum Euclidean distance of the constellation.

l ,m
Then the probability of error is found as
1 M 1 M M  dl ,m    M  1 Q d min 
P e    P e s m     Q   2N 
M m1 M m1 l 1  2 N 0   0 
l m
 P(e) is dominated by the minimum Euclidean distance of the signal

constellation.

An Approximation for Error Probability
 As an alternative, we can also the following approximate upper bound
Approximate upper bound

U B M  d l ,m  ~  d 
P e s m    Q   N dmin,m Q min 
l 1  2 N 0   2N0 
l m
N dmin,m : Number of signals at distance dmin from sm
1 M ~ 1 M  d min 
P e    P e s m    N dmin,m Q 
M m1 M m1  2N0  1 M
N dmin   N dmin,m
M m1
 d min 
 N dmin Q 
 2N0 

Error Probability for M-PSK
   
2
d min  4 Es sin 2    4 Eb log 2  M  sin 2  
Es M  M 
1, M  2
N dmin 
2, M  2
2
Replacing d min and N dmin into the formula on p.50, we obtain
  2 Eb 
Q , M 2
  N 0 
P e   
2Q 2 Eb log M sin 2    , M  2
  N 2  
  0  M 

Error Probability for M-PSK (cont’d)
 Error rate degrades as M increases.

 Recall that spectral efficiency increases as M increases.

Error Probability for QAM
sm  t   Am,r cos 2f ct   Am,i sin  2f c t   sm   Am,r Ts 2 , Am,i Ts 2 
Am,r , Am,i    A,3 A
Es0  Es3  Es12  Es15  9 A2Ts

s0 s1 s2 s3
Es5  Es6  Es9  Es10  A2Ts
s4 s5 s6 s7
Es1  Es2  Es4  Es8 
s8 s9 s10 s11
 Es7  Es11  Es13  Es14  5 A2Ts
s12 s13 s14 s15
1 M 2
d min Esavg   Esm  5 A Ts
M m1
2 8
d min  2 A Ts 2  Esavg  Ebavg
5 Es 4 Eb
5

Error Probability for QAM (cont’d)
3 neighbours 4 neighbours • 2 neighbours

s0 s1 s2 s3
2 neighbours s0 , s3 , s12 , s15
• 3 neighbours
s4 s5 s6 s7 3 neighbours
s1 , s2 , s4 , s8 , s13 , s14 , s7 , s11
s8 s9 s10 s11
• 4 neighbours
s12 s13 s14 s15 s5 , s6 , s9 , s10
1 M
 N dmin   N dmin,m  3
M m1
Using the result from p.50, we obtain an approximate upper bound
~  d min   4 Ebavg 
P e   N dmin Q   3Q 
 2N0   5 N0 
 

Error Probability for QAM (cont’d)
 Power efficiency decreases with increasing M, but not early as fast as M-

PSK.
 Recall that spectral efficiency increases as M increases.

Error Probability for M-FSK
sm  t   A cos 2  f c  f m  t  f m   m 2T , m  1,2...M  0  t  Ts
Each signal occupies its own

dimension. Therefore, each
signal has M-1neighbours,
separated from each other by
d min  2 Es
 Es   Eb log 2 M 
P e    M  1 Q
 
   M  1 Q 
 N0   N0 

Error Probability for M-FSK (cont’d)
• BPSK
 2 Eb 
P e   Q 
 N0 
• BFSK
 Eb 
P e   Q 
 N0 
 As M increases, power efficiency improves (i.e. less Eb is required).

 Recall that spectral efficiency decreases as M increases.
 For M=2, BFSK requires 3dB more energy/bit to achieve the same P(e) as
BPSK. In other words, BPSK is 3dB more power efficient that BFSK.

Comparison of Power Efficiency of Modulation Schemes
 We will use BPSK/QPSK as a benchmark with which to compare the
power efficiency of other modulation schemes.
2
 BPSK/QPSK has d min  4 Eb . Now, define the power efficiency of a
modulation scheme (relative to BPSK/QPSK) as
 d min
2 
 P  10 log10  

 4 Eb 

Differential Phase Shift Keying
(DPSK)that coherent demodulation is performed, i.e. that the
 So far, we assumed
carrier phase is perfectly known at the receiver. This normally requires carrier
phase estimation.
 An alternative is “differentially encoding”, where the data is encoded in
phase difference from one symbol to the next. Assuming binary signalling,
d k   0,1  bk    1,1  ak  ak 1bk
dk 0 1 1 1 0 1
bk +1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1
ak +1 +1 -1 +1 -1 -1 +1
This diagram might

correspond to either
PSK or DPSK!

Transmitter and Receiver for DPSK
d k   0,1 bk    1 s DPSK  t 
Differential ak    1
Mapper
Encoder
A cos c t   
 θ represents any mismatch between transmitter/receiver oscillators or phase
introduced by the channel. In our system model, (independent of where it
comes from) we included in the transmitter block.
 In coherent systems, we need to estimate and compensate this phase error at
the receiver. Here, we simply ignore it!
yI  t 
  dt
r t  t  kT yk zk
2 cos  c t  sgn  Re . 
yQ  t 
y k* 1
  dt
1 Symbol
Delay  *
 2 sin   c t 
Error Probability of DPSK
s  t   Aak cos ct     k 1T  t  kT
y  t   y I  t   jyQ  t 
 ak Ae j  N  t 
y k   y  t  dt   Ae j ak dt   N  t dt  ATe j ak  N k N k ~ N  0,2 N 0T 

T T T
def def
 Defining 1   y k  y k 1  2  2   y k  y k 1  2 the decision variable
can be written as
   2 2
z k  sgn Re y k y k* 1  1   2
P e   Pbˆk  1bk  1  P  Re y k y k*1   0 bk  1  P 1   2 bk  1

Error Probability of DPSK (cont’d)
 We need to find statistical properties of 1 and  2 :
First, we recall the definitions
def def
1   y k  y k 1  2  2   y k  y k 1  2
1  ATe j  ak  ak 1  / 2   N k  N k 1  2
 2  ATe j  ak  ak 1  / 2   N k  N k 1  2
E  1   ATe j  ak  ak 1  / 2
E   2   ATe j  ak  ak 1  / 2

Var  1   E 1  E  1    E 14  N  N
2
k k 1  N k  N k 1  *   N 0T

Var     E    E    E   N  N
2 1   *
2 2 2 k k 1 N k  N k 1   N 0T
4 

 Encoding scheme: ak  ak 1bk
ak ak 1 bk  ak  ak 1  2  ak  ak 1  2
+1 +1 +1 +1 0
-1 +1 -1 0 -1
-1 -1 +1 -1 0
+1 -1 -1 0 1
 Under the assumption that bk  1 is sent
E  1   0 1R , 1I ~ N 0,  2  where  2  N 0T 2

Var  1   N 0T 1  1R  j1I Complex Gaussian
E   2    ATe j   
 2 R ~ N  AT cos   ,  2  2 I ~ N  AT sin    , 
2

Var   2   N 0T  2   2 R  j 2 I Complex Gaussian
 1 : Rayleigh,  2 : Rician
1 1 2 
1 : Rayleigh f  1   2 exp  
  2 2 
 
 2 : Rician


 1
f   2   22 exp  2  2   2
 2
2
  I  
0 2
2 

 
2 2 2 2 2

where the non-zero mean is found as   A T cos   sin     AT 
 Now, we return to P(e)
computation 
P e   P 1  2    P  1   2    f 2    d 1 : Rayleigh
0

2 : Rician
 1 
P  1    2      2
1
exp  2 d 1
  2 
def 1
u 
 2 2
  exp  u du
 2 2 2

 exp   2 2 2 
  2     2   2    
P e    exp  2  2 exp  I
2  0 2 
d
0  2    2    Variable change
def
1 x  x 
2 2   x  x 2
 exp I0 
 2
2 0  2 2   2 2 dx
  def
1  m2   x  x 2  m 2   mx  m 2
 exp  2   2 exp  I
2  0 2 
dx   AT
2  2  0   2    
=1
1  A T 2  2  N 0T 2
 exp  

2  2N0  E   s 2  t  dt  A 2T 2
1  E  T
 exp  
2  N0 

0
Coherent vs. Differential PSK
10
Coherent
Differential
-1
10
-2
10
BER
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
SNR [dB]
 There is some performance degradation due to differential detection,

but now a less complex receiver can be used (i.e. no need for phase
tracking).

Temporal Characteristics of Modulation Schemes
 So far, we have considered pulse shapes which are strictly limited in the
symbol interval. By using a pulse shape to “spill over” into adjacent symbol
intervals, better spectral efficiency can be achieved, however this also results in
intersymbol interference (ISI).
 The following block diagram is commonly used for studying ISI. Assuming
matched filter type implementation for the demodulator,
 t  lTs
g  t    ak p t  kTs 
k  
hT  t  hC  t  hR  t  Detector
w t 
“Actual” Channel
“Equivalent” Channel
zl   ak heq   l  k  Ts   n lTs  where heq  hT  t   hC  t   hR  t 

n t   w t   hR  t 
k

Temporal Characteristics of Modulation Schemes (cont’d)
 Here, we use in pulse shapes which spill over adjacent symbols. This will
bring ISI terms:
zl   ak heq   l  k  Ts   n lTs   al heq  0   ak heq   l  k Ts   n lTs 

k k l
ISI terms
 The condition for no ISI is
1, n  0
heq  nTs   
0, otherwise
 In frequency domain, this requires
 l 
 H eq  f    constant
l  Ts 
See proof Proakis “Digital Communications” Chapter 9
 This condition is known as “Nyquist pulse-shaping criterion” or “Nyquist
condition for zero ISI”.
In the following, we consider three distinct cases:
W: Bandwidth of equivalent ch.
1  l 
 H eq  f  
Ts  l  Ts 
2W
 For this case, there is no choice for Heq to satisfy Nyquist

criterion.
 l 
 H eq  f  
 Ts 
1 l
Ts 
2W
 For this case, there is only one solution: Ts , f  W

H eq  f   
0, otherwise
 l 
 H eq  f  
1 l  Ts 
Ts 
2W
 l 
 For this case, there exists many solutions as to satisfy  H eq  f    cons.
l  Ts 
 A particular pulse shape which satisfies the above property and has been widely
used in practical applications is “raised cosine”. (See page 28) The “Nyquist” pulse
takes zero at the sampling points for adjacent signalling intervals.
 X  f  l Ts   cons.
l
 Under the matched-filter assumption (i.e. which maximizes the output
signal-to-noise ratio), the transmit and receive filters satisfy
HT  f   H R  f 
 Under the ideal channel assumption , i.e. H C  f   1
HT  f   H R  f   H eq  f 
 For “raised-cosine” equivalent channel response, we can divide it into two

“root-raised-cosine” (RRC) filters.
 1
Ts , f 
2Ts

Ts  Ts  1  1 1 
H RRC  f   H RC  f    cos  f   ,  f 
2    2Ts   2Ts 2Ts
 1 
0, f 
 2Ts
Temporal Characteristics of BPSK
 Consider the baseband BPSK modulated signal with RRC pulse shape

g  t    ak p t  kTs  ak    1
k  
 “Eye pattern” is a sketch of g(t) for all possible combinations of  a1 , a2 , a3 ,...
• Minimum instantaneous
power=0
• Maximum instantaneous
power=(1.6)2=4.1 [dB]
• Dynamic range=4.1 [dB]
• Average power=1=0 [dB]
• Peak power Avg. power  4.1 dB
 For this example, we observe large “dynamic range of instantaneous power”

and large “peak/average ratio”. These make the design of TX power amplifier
difficult. ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012 72
Temporal Characteristics of QPSK
 The QPSK signal with pulse shaping can be written as
 
g  t    ak p t  kTs  cos c t    bk p t  kTs  sin  ct  ak , bk    1
k  k 
 The instantaneous power of the QPSK signal is

2 2
 a p t  kT     b p t  kT  
 k s   k s 
k  k 
 Hence, a QPSK signal suffers similar time-domain problems as a BPSK
signal. Now assume, different pulses are used for I&Q channels. If Q channel
pulse is delayed by 1/2 symbol relative to I channel pulse, i.e. q t   p t  Ts 2 
the instantaneous power is
2 2
   
  ak p t  kTs      bk p t  kTs  Ts 2 
k  k 
 Both terms can not pass through zero simultaneously, hence significantly
increasing the minimum instantaneous power and reducing dynamic range of the
signal. PSD and BER remain unchanged. This is known as “Offset QPSK (OQPSK)”.
Temporal Characteristics of QPSK (cont’d)
 Another variant of QPSK is “π/4-QPSK”. This modulation scheme is a
superposition of two QPSK signal constellations offset by π/4 relative to each
other.
+ =
ak  jbk  ak  jbk  ak  jbk 

  e j  2 ,  e j   e j 4 ,e j3 4   
  e j 4 , e j 3 4 , for even k

 
  e j 2 , e j , for odd k
 PSD and BER of π/4-QPSK are the same as QPSK.

Temporal Characteristics of QPSK (cont’d)
 In QPSK, transitions between opposite points in the signal constellation

cause the instantaneous power to zero, leading to a large dynamic range.
 The special structure of π/4-QPSK avoids transitions which pass the origin,
reducing dynamic range and peak-to-average power ratio.

Continuous FSK
 We can get perfect temporal properties by using continuous FSK (CFSK)
g  t    ak p t  kTs  ak    1
k
 t 
s t   cos2f c t  2h  g   d   cos 2f c t  2h  ak q t  kTs  
    k 
where
def t
q t    p  kTs d h: Modulation index

 Instantaneous power= constant

 Dynamic range=0dB
 Peak-to-average power ratio=0dB
 There is no abrupt switching from one phase to another, avoiding phase
discontinuities.

Continuous FSK (cont’d)
 Here, we assume a rectangle pulse shape for p(t).
p(t): “Frequency pulse”   t ; a   2h  ak q t  kTs  nTs  t   n  1 Ts

k
n 1 t  nTs
 h  ak  2h an n=0,1,..
1/2Ts k 0 2Ts
3πh
t
“Phase Tree”
2πh
Ts
+1 ………
πh +1
-1
q(t): “Phase pulse” 0 +1
-1
-πh
-1 ………
-2πh
1/2 -3πh
Ts 2Ts 3Ts
The shaded path illustrates the phases for
t
Ts the input sequence {+1,+1,-1}

n 1 t  nTs han
  t ; a   2h  ak  2h an  2 t   n  hna n nTs  t   n  1 Ts
k 0 2T s 2Ts
 n
  han  
s t   cos 2f ct    t ; a    cos2  f c  t   n  hnan 
  2Ts  
  h  
an  1  s  t   cos 2  f c  t   n  hn
  2Ts 
  h  
an  1  s  t   cos 2 
  c f   t    hn 
2Ts 
n
  
The separation between two carriers is f  h T s
 For orthogonality, the minimum value for h should be chosen as h=1/2. This
special case is known as “Minimum Shift Keying” (MSK).
 We have already introduced MSK as a special case of modulation family of
CFSK.
 An MSK signal can be also considered as a special form of OQPSK where
the rectangular pulses are replaced with half-sinusoidal pulses.
s t    ak p t  2kTs  cos 2f c t    ak p t  2kTs  Ts  sin  2f c t 

odd k even k
  t 
cos ,0  t  2Ts
p t     2Ts 
0, otherwise

 The transmission rate on the two orthogonal carriers is 1/2Ts bits/sec so that
the combined transmission rate is 1/Ts bits/sec.

Comparison of MSK, QPSK and OQPSK
 Continuous phase is assured in MSK while 90 and 180 phase changes are
observable for OQPSK and QPSK respectively.
Comparison of MSK, QPSK and OQPSK (cont’d)
 In terms of temporal
efficiency, MSK obviously
outperforms QPSK and
OQPSK.
 The main lobe of MSK is
wider than that of QPSK and
OQPSK and, in terms of null-
to-null bandwidth MSK is less
spectral efficient.
 MSK has lower sidelobes
than QPSK and OQPSK 
Less adjacent channel
interference
 MSK, QPSK and OQPSK
have the same power efficiency.
Gaussian MSK
 The spectral efficiency of MSK can be further improved by prefiltering.
g  t    ak p t  kTs  Gaussian MSK

k
LPF Modulator
 The frequency response function of Gaussian LPF filter is given as
 f 2 ln 2  2  2 2 B 2t 2 
H  f   exp    h t  
 B exp  
 B 2  ln 2  ln 2 
where B is “3dB-bandwidth of the filter”.
 We are interested in how a rectangle pulse passed through a Gaussian

LPF will look like.

Gaussian MSK (cont’d)
 Frequency pulse
 t T / 2  t  T / 2 
f  t   Q       
  T   T 
  2BT ln  2  BT: Normalized

3dB-Bandwidth
 Phase pulse
x2
1  1  x 2  
q t   1   exp    xQ x  
 
  2  2   x1
t T / 2 t T /2
x1   x2  
T T
Phase pulse corresponding to rectangular
pulse shaping (i.e. no filtering) is also
included in the figure.
BT: Normalized
3dB-Bandwidth
of Gaussian filter
 For BT ∞, the pulse shape takes its original “unfiltered” form , i.e. rectangle
pulse. GMSKMSK
 The frequency pulse has a duration of 2Ts although signaling rate is 1/Ts. Such
a LPF will result in intersymbol interference which requires sequence estimation
for optimal detection.

 BT should be chosen as to find a good

compromise between spectral efficiency
and ISI.
 As BT decreases, the spectral
efficiency improves (i.e. less bandwith).
Also sidelobes fall off very rapidly (i.e.
less adjacent channel interference).
 However, reducing BT results in ISI
and error rate performance degrades (i.e.
observation of an “irreducible error floor”
due to ISI)
 In practical application, BT is typically
chosen as (0.2, 0.5). GSM systems use
GMSK with BT=0.35.

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Chapter 3

Bandpass Transmission Techniques

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012 1

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012 2

 Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion: Analog (i.e., continuous-time

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012 3

 To achieve easy radiation: Dimensions of the transmit/receive antennas are

 Large bandwidths require high carrier frequencies: Practical requirements

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012 5

Channel capacity Bandwidth Signal-to-noise ratio

 To (possibly) expand the bandwidth of the transmitted signal for

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012 6

 Each of the waveform can be represented as a point (vector) in an N-dimensional

sm  t   s m   sm,1 , sm, 2 ,..., sm, N 

 The Gram-Schmidt procedure (See Appendix A of the textbook) provides a

sm  t   sm   sm,1 , sm, 2 ,..., sm, N 

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012 8

sm  t   Am cos 2f ct  Am    2m  1  M  , m  1,2...M  0  t  Ts

 Baseband (Equivalent Lowpass) Representation

 Basis Function(s) (Obtained through Gram-Schmidt procedure)

Examples of M-ASK M=4

Equivalent Lowpass Signal

ECE414 Wireless Communications, University of Waterloo, Winter 2012 10

sm  t   A cos 2f ct   m   m   2  m  1 M , m  1,2...M  0  t  Ts

 Baseband (Equivalent Lowpass) Representation

sm  t   s m   A Ts 2 cos  m  , A Ts 2 sin   m   2-dimensional

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Signal-Space Representation Bandpass Modulation Signal

Equivalent Lowpass Signal

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sm  t   Am,r cos 2f ct   Am,i sin  2f c t  m  1,2,...M 0  t  Ts

Am,r, Am,i: Information-bearing signal amplitudes of the quadrature carriers

Alternatively, QAM can be considered as a combination of ASK and PSK.

sm  t   Am cos 2f ct   m  where m  1,2,...M 0  t  Ts

Am  Am2 ,r  Am2 ,i  m  arctg  Am,i Am,r 

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sm  t   s m   Am,r Ts 2 , Am,i Ts 2  2-dimensional

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sm  t   A cos 2  f c  f m  t  f m   mf , m  1,2...M  0  t  Ts

 Baseband (Equivalent Lowpass) Representation

1 Ts j 2  k l  ft sin T  k  l  f  jT  k l  f

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 The fidelity for a digital communication system is usually measured in terms of

 Symbol error probability (SEP) is in general easier to evaluate. Bit error

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 In most practical scenarios, these performance measures conflict with each

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M: “Modulation order”, “Constellation size”

then the PSD of g(t) is given as

 Autocorrelation of data sequence

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 PSD of baseband BPSK sequence

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 Autocorrelation of data sequence

 PSD of bandpass QAM sequence

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 Raised Cosine Pulse

sin  t T  cos t T  0  1

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Correlation-type demodulator Matched-filter demodulator