ART & ARCHITECTURE

UNIT-1
About Land
 "Hindu synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and 300
CE,following the Vedic period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE)
About Land
The Vedas were composed and orally transmitted by
speakers of an Old Indo-Aryan language who had migrated
into the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent
early in this period. The associated Vedic culture was
tribal and pastoral until c. 1200 or 1100 BCE and centred in
the Punjab. It then spread eastward to the western Ganges
Plain, becoming more agricultural and settled, while the
central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-
Vedic Indo-Aryan culture. The Vedic period saw the
emergence of a hierarchy of social classes and the
coalescence of peoples into Janapada (monarchical state-
level polities).The end of the Vedic period witnessed the
rise of Mahajanapada (large, urbanised states) as well as
śramaṇa movements (including Jainism and Buddhism)
which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy of the Kuru Kingdom
INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
 The Indus Valley
Civilisation (IVC),
or Harappan
Civilisation, was a
Bronze Age
civilisation (3300–
1300 BCE; mature
period 2600–1900
BCE) mainly in the
northwestern
regions of South
Asia, extending
from what today is
northeast
Afghanistan to
Pakistan and
northwest India.
Along with Ancient
Egypt and
Mesopotamia, it
was one of three
early cradles of
civilisations of the
Old World, and of
the three, the most
widespread.
 The Indus
Origins
 Hinduism is a fusion or synthesis of various Indian
cultures and traditions. Among the roots of Hinduism
are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India itself
already the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan
and Harappan cultures and civilizations", but also the
Sramana or renouncer traditions of northeast India and
mesolithic and neolithic cultures of India, such as the
religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation Dravidian
traditions, and the local traditions and tribal religions.
 This "Hindu synthesis" emerged after the Vedic period,
between 500-200BCE and c. 300 CE, the beginning of
the "Epic and Puranic" c.q. "Preclassical" period,and
incorporated śramaṇic and Buddhist influences and the
emerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold via
the Smriti literature. From northern India this "Hindu
synthesis", and its societal divisions, spread to
southern India and parts of Southeast Asia
Prevedic religions (until c. 1500 BCE)
The Pashupati seal, Indus Valley civilization
The earliest prehistoric religion in India that may have
left its traces in Hinduism comes from mesolithic as
observed in the sites such as the rock paintings of
Bhimbetka rock shelters dating to a period of 30,000 BCE
or older, as well as neolithic times. Some of the religious
practices can be considered to have originated in 4000
BCE. Several tribal religions still exist, though their
practices may not resemble those of prehistoric religions.
According to anthropologist Possehl, the Indus Valley
Civilization "provides a logical, if somewhat arbitrary,
starting point for some aspects of the later Hindu
tradition". The religion of this period included worship of
a Great male god, which is compared to a proto-Shiva,
and probably a Mother Goddess, that may prefigure
Shakti. However these links of deities and practices of
the Indus religion to later-day Hinduism are subject to
both political contention and scholarly dispute
Vedic religion
The Indo-Aryans brought with them their language and
religion. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical
era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-
European religion and the Indo-Iranian religion.
The composition of the Vedic literature began in the 2nd
millennium BCE. The oldest of these Vedic texts is the
Rigveda, composed between c. 1500-1200 BCE,though a
wider approximation of c. 1700–1100 BCE has also been
given.
The first half of the 1st millennium BCE was a period of great
intellectual and social-cultural ferment in ancient India. New
ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the form of the
Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through the
Śramaṇa movements.For example, prior to the birth of the
Buddha and the Mahavira, and related Sramana movements,
the Brahmanical tradition had questioned the meaning and
efficacy of Vedic rituals,then internalized and variously
reinterpreted the Vedic fire rituals as ethical concepts such as
Truth, Rite, Tranquility or Restraint. The 9th and 8th centuries
EPICS AND PURANAS
The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. These
texts are classified into two: Shruti and Smriti.
There are four Vedas – Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and
Atharvaveda.
The most notable of the Smritis ("remembered") are the
Hindu epics and the Puranas. The epics consist of the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Bhagavad Gita is an
integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most
popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is sometimes called
Gitopanishad, then placed in the Shruti ("heard") category,
being Upanishadic in content. The Puranas, which started to
be composed from c. 300 CE onward, contain extensive
mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common
themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives.
HINDU GODS AND GODDESS
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many
practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular
denomination or tradition. Four major denominations are,
however, used in scholarly studies: Vaishnavism,
Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.
Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that
worships Vishnu and his avatars, particularly Krishna and
Rama
Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva.
Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as
cosmic mother
Smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the
major Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha,
Surya and Skanda.
CREATION,DESTRUCTION AND
REBIRTH
The Trimūrti "three forms" is the trinity of supreme
divinity in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions
of creation, maintenance, and destruction are
personified as a triad of deities, typically Brahma
the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the
destroyer, though individual denominations may
vary from that particular line-up. When all three
deities of the Trimurti incarnate into a single avatar,
the avatar is known as Dattatreya.
This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called
samsara. Liberation from samsara through moksha
is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.
RITUALS

Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.The rituals

vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They
are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of
rituals is an individual's choice. Some devout Hindus
perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after
bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes
lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of
deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional
hymns, yoga, meditation, chanting mantras and others.
Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (yajna) and chanting of Vedic
hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu
wedding.Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after
death, include the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras.
 ROLE OF FINE ARTS
 Sculpture
The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from
the Indus Valley civilization (3300–1700 BC), found in sites
at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modern-day Pakistan.
Chola dynasty-iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja
massive granite carvings – Mahabalipuram
pink sandstone-sculptures of Mathura.
 Wall painting
The tradition and methods of Indian cliff painting gradually
evolved throughout many thousands of years - there are
multiple locations found with prehistoric art. The early caves
included overhanging rock decorated with rock-cut art and
the use of natural caves during the Mesolithic period (6000
BCE).
Jewellery
The Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery-making,
with a history of over 5,000 years. Using jewellery as a store of capital remains
more common in India than in most modern societies, and gold appears always
to have been strongly preferred for the metal. India and the surrounding areas
were important sources of high-quality gemstones.

Music of India
The music of India includes multiple varieties of classical music, folk music. India's
classical music tradition, including Hindustani music and Carnatic, has a history
spanning millennia and developed over several areas. Music in India began as an
integral part of socio-religious life.
Dance in India
Comprises numerous styles of dances, generally classified as classical or
folk.As with other aspects of Indian culture, different forms of dances
originated in different parts of India, developed according to the local
traditions and also imbibed elements from other parts of the country.
These have roots in the Sanskrit text Natya Shastra, and the religious
performance arts of Hinduism.
 Bharatanatyam
 Kathakali
 Kathak
 Kuchipudi
 Odissi
 Sattriya
 Manipuri
 Mohiniyattam
 Vastu shastra
Vastu shastra (vāstu śāstra) is a traditional Hindu system of architecture
which literally translates to "science of architecture." These are texts
found on the Indian subcontinent that describe principles of design,
layout, measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement and
spatial geometry. Vastu Shastras incorporate traditional Hindu and in some
cases Buddhist beliefs. The designs are intended to integrate architecture
with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the structure, and
ancient beliefs utilizing geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry and
directional alignments.
Vastu Shastra are the textual part of Vastu Vidya, the latter being the
broader knowledge about architecture and design theories from ancient
India. Vastu Vidya knowledge is a collection of ideas and concepts, with or
without the support of layout diagrams, that are not rigid. Rather, these
ideas and concepts are models for the organization of space and form
within a building or collection of buildings, based on their functions in
relation to each other, their usage and to the overall fabric of the Vastu.
Ancient Vastu Shastra principles include those for the design of Mandir
(Hindu temples), and the principles for the design and layout of houses,
towns, cities, gardens, roads, water works, shops and other public areas.
 Shilpa Shastras
 Shilpa Shastras literally means the Science of Shilpa (arts
and crafts). It is an ancient umbrella term for numerous
Hindu texts that describe arts, crafts, and their design rules,
principles and standards. In the context of temple design,
Shilpa Shastras were manuals for sculpture and Hindu
iconography, prescribing among other things, the
proportions of a sculptured figure, composition, principles,
meaning, as well as rules of architecture.
 While Shilpa and Vastu Shastras are related, Shilpa Shastras
deal with arts and crafts such as forming statues, icons,
stone murals, painting, carpentry, pottery, jewellery, dying,
textiles and others. Vastu Shastrasdeal with building
architecture – building houses, forts, temples, apartments,
village and town layout, etc
 Agama
 The Agamas are a collection of scriptures of several Hindu
devotional schools. The term literally means tradition or "that
which has come down", and the Agama texts describe
cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts
on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras,
temple construction, deity worship and ways to attain sixfold
desires. These canonical texts are in Sanskrit and Tamil.
 The three main branches of Agama texts are those of
Shaivism (Shiva), Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaktism (Devi). The
Agamic traditions are sometimes called Tantrism, although
the term "Tantra" is usually used specifically to refer to
Shakta Agamas. The Agama literature is voluminous, and
includes 28 Shaiva Agamas, 77 Shakta Agamas (also called
Tantras), and 108 Vaishnava Agamas (also called Pancharatra
Samhitas), and numerous Upa-Agamas.
 SITE FOR TEMPLE
The appropriate site for a temple, suggest ancient
Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus
and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds
are heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or
harm. These harmonious places were recommended in
these texts with the explanation that such are the
places where gods play, and thus the best site for
Hindu temples.
While major Hindu temples are recommended at
sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and
seashore, Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples
may also be built where a natural source of water is
not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be
built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with
water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor
by design, water is symbolically present at the
consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may also
 Oil Lamp test
Dig a pit of 3’x3’x3’, light four oil lamps inside the same. If all
four continues to burn, the site is prosperous. If any thing
less then 3 then the site is considered un- prosperous.
(Science behind this is lamp don't burn in trapped gas zone).
 Soil density test
Dig a pit of 3’x3’x3’, it the excavated soil is refilled, if the pit
has excuses soil then the site is good, if the excavated soil is
equal in pit then its fair, if the soil refilled is less then the
site is bad.
 Taste test
Dig a pit, if excavated soil is sweet the site is good. If it is sore
and salty the site is unfit for construction.
 Germination test
Navadhaniyam is soughed, if they germinate healthy then the
site is considered good, if germination is poor the site is
considered bad.
(this navadhaniyam test help trace metal content in the soil)
STHALA VRIKSHA
A Sthala Vriksha is a monumental tree
that is indigenous to every historical
Hindu temple. This forms a prominent
feature of Koils, Hindu temples of the
Dravidian style.
Besides the dominant feature of a
temple's architecture comprising the
Gopuram, Vimanam and the sanctum,
the temple tree is also considered holy.
Some of the temples and historical
places derive their names from such
trees.
Hinduism and Ecology is a growing
Sthala Theertha
 Teertha’ means ‘Holy’. It is the holy water given in a temple after
all pujas. Typically, it is the water that was used to bathe the lord,
give him/her a hand wash, feet wash, rinsing of the mouth, etc
There can be three kinds of teerthas -
1. abhisheka teertham (water or a concoction of
milk/curds/ghee/honey/tender coconut water)
2. aaraadhanaa teertham (holy water after doing pooja; this is
essentially water used to give upacharas to the lord).
3. sri paada teertham (typically, holy water after washing the feet of holy
men/saints/acharyas/gurus).

 Temple tanks are wells or reservoirs built as part of the temple

complex near Indian temples. They are called pushkarini, kalyani, kunda,
sarovara, tirtha, talab, pukhuri, etc. in different languages and regions of
India. Some tanks are said to cure various diseases and maladies when
bathed in. It is possible that these are cultural remnants of structures
such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro or Dholavira, which was part of
the Indus Valley Civilization. Some are stepwells with many steps at the
sides.
Layout of Temple
 A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called
vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit
word with three of the most important components of the plan.
Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core
of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure.
Vastupurushamandala is a yantra The design lays out a Hindu
temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from
central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.
 The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu
temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space
available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The
square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic
product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is
considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life
(moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the
other.The square is divided into perfect 64 (or in some cases
81) sub-squares called padas.Each pada is conceptually
assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a
 The 49 grid design is called Sthandila and of great
importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in
South India, particularly in ‘‘Prakaras’’. The symmetric
Vastu-purusa-mandala grids are sometimes combined
to form a temple superstructure with two or more
attached squares. The temples face sunrise, and the
entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The
mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to Surya
deity (Sun). The Surya pada is flanked by the padas of
Satya (Truth) deity on one side and Indra (king of gods)
deity on other. The east and north faces of most
temples feature a mix of gods and demi-gods; while
west and south feature demons and demi-gods related
to the underworld. This vastu purusha mandala plan
and symbolism is systematically seen in ancient Hindu
temples on Indian subcontinent as well as those in
southeast Asia, with regional creativity and variations.
 The ancient texts on Hindu temple design, the
Vastupurusamandala and Vastu Sastras, do not limit
North Indian temples (Nagara style)
The 9x9 (81) grid ‘’Parama Sayika’’ layout plan (above) found in
large ceremonial Hindu Temples. It is one of many grids used to
build Hindu temples. In this structure of symmetry, each concentric
layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas,
signify aspects of Asuras and evil; while inner Devika padas signify
aspects of Devas and good. In between the good and evil is the
concentric layer of Manusha padas signifying human life; All these
layers surround Brahma padas, which signifies creative energy and
the site for temple’s primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very
center of Brahma padas is Grabhgriya (Purusa Space), signifying
Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.
South Indian temples(Dravidian)
The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to
Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common
Hindu temple template. The bright saffron center, where diagonals
intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.
Vasthu Mandala
 Installing a Sacred Image Murti Sthapana/Prana
Pratishta
 These installation ceremonies are generally given two
names: Murti Sthapana and Prana Pratishta. The
word murti means sacred image
and “sthapana” means “placing,” and so the murti
sthapana ceremony is the “placing of the sacred
image.” The other term, Prana Pratishta is a little less
common, but is still prevalent. “Prana” means “breath”
and “pratishta” means “establishing,” and so
the Prana Pratishta ceremony is literally “establishing
the breath” within the sacred image.
There are two ways to understand the Murti
Sthapana ceremony. The first is as a contract. An agreement
is established between the Deity and a temple congregation:
the Deity agrees to “descend” into the sacred image, and the
congregation agrees to care for the Deity in the form of
service, seva. The ceremony is literally the bringing and
awakening of the Deity within the stone or metal image. The
other view is more theological. By definition God is all-
pervading and omni-present and so the idea of establishing
the breath of the Deity within an image is impossible, God is
already there! The purpose of the ceremony is not to
establish the Deity within the image, but to awaken the mind
of the participates, through the power of ritual, to the
presence of divinity within the sacred image. At the
beginning of the ceremony people see only stone or metal,
but at the end they see God! The real installation takes place
not in the stone or metal image, but in the minds and hearts
of the participants. This is the power of ritual. The
culmination of such a ceremony is when the “eyes” of the
Priestly duties
Their primary responsibility is to conduct daily prayers (puja) at the temple.
During Hindu festivals, traditional events such as weddings, the sacred thread
ceremony, performance of last rites and special deity ceremonies, priests are
called upon to conduct puja's either at the temple or at the location of the
event. In order to perform these puja's, the priests are required to have prior
skills and knowledge. To be a qualified priest, they must know the required
chants (mantras and strotas) fluently in Sanskrit and be familiar with the
materials required to perform the puja for various ceremonies and rituals.
Pandits from an early age were trained to memorize hymns in order to chant
them during rituals and ceremonies without aid. Receiving assistance to
remember hymns and chants was frowned upon, and were only expected to
recite the hymns through memory.
Daily routines of Hindu priests would consist of prayers as much as four to six
times per day and perhaps even more. Every morning pandits are in charge of
bathing the deity with water and milk, clothing the deity with traditional wear
and jewellery. After conducting the ritual, the priest offers food to devotees
after it has been presented in front of the god referred to as prasad. Whilst
food is being handed out, the priests as well as the devotees engage in
singing prayers praising the deity. The priests finally conclude with an
arthi(lighted camphor) shown to the deity and held in the presence of the
devotees to receive dharshan(blessing).[6] A Hindu priest would repeat this
routine every day as a part of their responsibility in servicing god.
WATER AND RELEVANCE IN RITUAL AND TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
 Water in Hinduism has a special place because it is
believed to have spiritually cleansing powers.  To Hindus
all water is sacred, especially rivers, and there are seven
sacred rivers, namely the Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari,
Sarasvati, Narmada, Sindhu and Kaveri.  Although
Hinduism encompasses so many different beliefs among
those that most Hindus do share is the importance of
striving to attain purity and avoiding pollution.  This
relates to both physical cleanliness and spiritual well-
being.
 Pilgrimage is very important to Hindus.  Holy places are
usually located on the banks of rivers, coasts, seashores
and mountains.  Sites of convergence, between land and
river or two, or even better three, rivers, carry special
significance and are specially sacred.  Sacred rivers are
thought to be a great equalizer. 
• The Ganges river is the most important of the sacred
rivers.  Its waters are used in puja (worship) and if possible
a sip is given to the dying.  It is believed that those who
bathe in the Ganges and those who leave some part of
themselves (hair, bone etc) on the left bank will attain
Svarga (the paradise of Indra).  The river is said to flow
from the toe of Vishnu to be spread into the world through
the hair of Shiva. 
• Funeral grounds are always located near a river. 
• For Hindus, morning cleansing with water is a basic
obligation.  Tarpana is the point at which the worshipper
makes a cup with his hands and pours the water back into
the river reciting mantras.  After sipping some water, he
may then apply the distinguishing mark of his sampradaya
(tradition), and say the morning prayer, samdhya. 
Sodhana is Hindu purification and is necessary for different
reasons and at different levels.  Physical purification is a
part of daily ritual which may, in the case of sadhus (Hindu
MATHEMATICS, GEOMETRY,SCIENCE AND
PHILOSOPHIES IN TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
(UNITS:2)
 Measures and proportions
 The structural harmony, the rhythm and a fine sense of
proportion is the hall mark of Indian temple
architecture. It not merely resolves the contradictions
but also expresses harmony by encompassing all
contradictions, transforming into pure and
uncompromised details of structure. The aim of a
proportional system, meaning not merely symmetry, is
to manifest a sense of coherence and harmony among
the elements of the temple and it’s whole. The
proportional harmonization of design, therefore, is of
utmost importance in the construction of a temple. It is
believed that the power and purity of the structure
radiates from its exact proportions and measures as
specified in the texts. It is also believed that a
meticulously well constructed temple radiates peace
and joy; and ensures the welfare of the world and its
people.
 The ancient texts, therefore, insist on a high degree of
precision in their measurements. The standard
text Mayamata  mentions “Only if the temple is
constructed correctly according to a mathematical
system can it be expected to function in harmony with
the universe. Only if the measurement of the temple is
in every way perfect, there will be perfection in the
universe as well.”

 The Hindu temple is a feast of a variety of visual

aspects, and wherever one engages one of them,
entering a doorway, circumambulating or approaching
the inner sanctuary or worshipping there– one is
accessing an aspect of the whole.

 The rules of Vastu-shastra render beauty, structural

stability and quality of spaces by virtue of light, sound
and volume management. They also evoke in the
devotee an attuning of his person to its structure and
The ancient shilpis used a great degree of precision in
their measurements. Much of this system is followed
by the present shilpis too. An interesting feature of
these systems is the standard unit of measurement;
the smallest unit mentioned is the anu or the particle,
which is hardly perceptible. The anu measure was
employed for extremely delicate or intricate or the
most vital aspects of a sculpture; for instance, the
eyes and facial features of the image of presiding
deity; or in the amazingly  delicate and minute
carvings of the Hoyasla images. The norms and
measures specified in the Southern texts, it is said,
are still in use. These measures are in two categories;
one for delicate and intricate work and the other for
normal structures.
Look at the table of measurements for minute and
delicate carvings.
 Eight anus (particles) = one nulu (breadth of a fine
cotton or silk fiber),
 Eight nulu = one hair (breadth of horse hair),
The angula (1.875 cms) and the hasta (cubit, 45 cms) are the
units that are normally used for deriving the dimensions,
proportions, the height and other details of a sculpture. The
Danda (four cubits) used for measuring less-delicate or
lengthier structure is equivalent to 180 cms.
 One Hastha = one cubit= 45 cms;
 Four Hasthas = one Danda= 96 angulas = 180 cms.
 One Hastha =24 angulas = 45 cms.
 Thus one angula = 1.875 cms.
 The old Sanskrit texts too mention a set of measurements.
According to them Anu or paramanu, the particle, was the
smallest measure.
 8 anus = one ratha renu (grain of dust);
 8 ratha renu = one valagrasa (hair end);
 8 valagrasa =One grain of yava;
 4 yavas = one angula;
 12 angulas = one vitasta or Tala (span)
 2 Vitasta or Tala = Hastha (cubit) = 24 angulas
 26 angulas= Dhanurbhagha (handle of a bow).
 4 hatas = One Danda;
VASTHU-HUMAN SCALE
The Vastu believes that every unit of time vibration
produces a corresponding unit of space measure;
and derives that the time is equal to space.
This rhythm of time and space vibrations is
quantified in terms of eight and as multiples of
eight.  According to the Vastu, at the subtle level
the human form is a structure of eight spatial
units apart from elements  like the hair, kneecap
and toe nails, each of which measures one-
quarter of the basic measure of the body and,
when added on to the body’s eight units,
increases the height of the total form to nine
units. Traditionally, these nine units are applied in
making sculptures of gods.
Temple layout –relevance to human
form
 The 'Aham Brahmasmi' ("I am Brahman. I am part of the
Universe.") is the great sayings (Mahavakya) mentioned in
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10. of Yajur Veda. The
meaning is that ‘Whatever is in the Universe, is present in
me’ (and ‘whatever is in me, is part of the Universe’). Indian
temples represents the macrocosm of the universe and the
structure of the human body represents the microcosm. Veda
also says "Yatha Pinde tatha Brahmande". It means what is
going on within human being is the same as what is going on
in universe. According to the Tamil Saint Tirumular "our body
is a temple".  Here I would like to quote Stella Kramrisch:
 “The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form
of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in
whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes
from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-
mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily
device by which those who have the requisite knowledge
attain the best results in temple building.” (Stella Kramrisch,;
The Hindu Temple, Vol. I)
 The concept of chakra features in tantric and yogic traditions
of Hinduism. In Yoga, Kundalini Shakti means the ‘coiled
1. Muladhara or root chakra located at the base of the
spine in the coccygeal region (governs senses).  According
to Vastu Mandala South-West (Nauritya) - Deity Lord
(Demon) Nauritya influences protection, strength and
stability.

2. Swadhisthana or Adhishthana at the lower stomach

region or the sacrum of the human.  Vastu direction West
(Varuna) - Lord Varuna (Neptune) Lord of Water or Rain.
Formation of temple tank or water bodies in South or West
will influence reputation, fame, prosperity and success.
3. Manipura or Manipuraka at the digestive glands
(governs digestion through pancreas and adrenal glands) of
the human. Digestion involves energy of fire. Female bears
navel, womb and umbilical chord. According to Vastu
Mandala Lord Brahma or Lord of Creation seated on lotus
flower base (Adishtana) rules this point. Cosmic Brahma
bridges the cosmic human navel or life. If this point in
temple should be left open, the vital energy flows and the
wholeness resides with blessings and protection.
 5. Vishuddha or Vishuddhi located at the throat i.e., thyroid
glands (governs sound, speech communication and sence of
security of human being). Mantras chanted by cosmic
humanbeing bridges with cosmic Ishanya. Comic Ishanya is
represented in OM, a Pranava Mantra form. According to
Vastu Mandala Lord Shiva in Ishanya form rules this grid and
represents the space or Akasha. Mantras chanted here will
reverberate in space. If left free from obstacles and less
occupation or weight, there will be balanced power.
  6. Ajna  or third eye located at pineal glands or between the
eye brows; the two side nadis 'Ida' (yoga) and 'Pingala' are
terminating and merge with the central channel 'Sushumna'
(governs  higher and lower selves and trusting inner
guidance of human being). As per Vastu Mandala this
direction is also related to open spaces (‘Akasha’) and to the
North East corner (Ishanya). The sanctum (Garbagriha or
womb chamber) is recommended at this grid, the seat of
the divinity.

7. Sahasrara or pure consciousness chakra located at the

crown of the head - symbolized by a lotus with one thousand
TEMPLE LAYOUT-PLAN
Temple-construction, which generally follows an evolutionary
process combines in itself the stages of differentiation and
fusion; creation and dissolution; and, emergence and mergence
or blending . Although such dynamic processes are at once
conflicting and complimentary, they all are harmonized in a
meaningful composition to achieve the final and the idealized
image of the temple.  The process is also analogous to the
emergence from the unity of the the seed to the diversity of the
tree with many branches.
 A typical South Indian temple has a certain fairly well defined
features and a generally accepted layout. The most important
structure of a temple is the garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum
which houses the idol of the presiding deity.
The Garbagriha is followed by four types of mantapas or pavilions.
Mantapa means any roofed, open or enclosed pavilion (hall)
resting on pillars, standing independently or connected to the
sanctum of the temple.
The first of the mantapas is the antarala (sometimes called
sukanas or sukanasi or ardhamantapa), a narrow pavilion
connecting the gharbhagriha and the navaranga.  It usually will
have niches in the north and south walls, occupied by a deity,
with attendant divinities in secondary niches flanking the
This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a hall used for ceremonial
purposes. This leads to mukha mantapa the opening pavilion.
The Dwajasthamba (flag post) in front of either the garbhagrha or
antarala or the mantapa is another common feature. It represents
the flag post of the ‘King of kings’. The lanchana (insignia) made
of copper or brass fixed like a flag to the top of the post varies
according to the deity in the temple and his/her nature.
The Balipitha (pedestal of sacrificial offerings) with a lotus or the
footprints of the deity is fixed near the Dwajasthamba, but nearer
to the deity. Red-colored offerings like rice mixed with vermillion
powder, are kept on this at appropriate stages of rituals for
feeding the parivara_devatas and panchabhuthas or the elements.
A Dipastambha (lamp post) is situated either in front of the
Balipitha or outside the main gate. The top of this post has a bud
shaped chamber to receive the lamp.
The whole temple is surrounded by a high wall (prakara) with one
main and three subsidiary gates, opening in the cardinal
directions. A gopura (high tower,) adorns these gateways.
Temple tanks
Since ancient times, the design of water storage has been important in
India's temple architecture, especially in western India where dry and
monsoon seasons alternate. Temple tank design became an art form
in itself. An example of the art of tank design is the large,
geometically spectacular Stepped Tank at the Royal Center at the
ruins of Vijayanagara, the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire,
surrounding the modern town of Hampi. It is lined with green diorite
and has no drain. It was filled by aqueduct.
The tanks are used for ritual cleansing and during rites of consecration.
The water in the tank is deemed to be sacred water from the Ganges
River.
Stepwell
In India, a stepwell is a deep masonry well with steps going down to the
water level in the well. It is called a vav in west India and a baoli in
north India. Some were built by kings and were richly
ornamented.They often were built by nobility, some being for secular
use from which anyone could obtain water
Kalyani, also called pushkarni, are ancient Hindu stepped bathing
wells.
 These wells were typically built near Hindu temples to accommodate
bathing and cleansing activities before prayer. They are also used for
 STHAMBA-COLUMNS
Rám Ráz in his Essay on the Architecture of the Hindús describes seven
kinds of Pillars (Sthamba) in relation to the thickness of the walls, the
strength and breadth of the base, and the number of floors in the
building. According to Rám Ráz :
 When the base is taken as a reference point for the length of a pillar,
than it may be 1¼, 1½, 1¾ or 2 times the height of the base. In total
there are 12 varieties of the height of a pillar. For the pilaster (in other
words a wall-pillar) it is 3, 4, 5 or 6 angulas. The diameter of a pillar is
2, 3 or 4 times the width of the pilaster.
As regards the form or shape of the pillars, Rám Ráz states :
 There are 6 forms of pillars, namely: square, pentagonal (5 sides),
hexagonal (6 sides), octagonal (8 sides), 16 sided and circular. These
shapes are uniform from bottom to top, but the base and top may be
square.
 The top of a pillar consists of 7 elements : The bracket capital, the dye
(featuring a human figure), the abacus, the bell capital, the support,
the lotus and the band ornamented with garlands.

THE WALLS
 The walls of the sanctum raise above a series of moldings, constituting
GARBHAGRHA
 The most important part  of a temple, its very heart
as it were, is the garbhagrha or  the sanctum
sanctorum,  the cave-like cube-shaped “womb room,”
located within the Brahmasthana of the Vastu
Purusha Mandala, directly above the gold box, placed
earlier in the earth during the garbhadhana
ceremony. Here on the altar, the deity in the Dhruva
Bheru (immovable) form is installed.
 According to the nature and placement of the
presiding deity, the entrance will be determined
either to North or to East of Garbagriha. The
placement of other deities will also be determined
accordingly.
 Garbhagriha usually is a cube with a low roof and
with no doors or windows except for the front
opening. The image of the deity is stationed in the
geometrical centre, facing the midpoint of the chosen
direction. The whole place completely dark, except
for the light that comes through the front opening.
Mantapas
The Garbagriha is followed by four types of mantapas or pavilions.
Mantapa means any roofed, open or enclosed pavilion (hall)
resting on pillars, standing independently or connected to the
sanctum of the temple.
The first of the mantapas a narrow pavilion connecting the
gharbhagriha and the navaranga. It usually will have niches in the
north and south walls, occupied by a deity, with attendant
divinities in secondary niches flanking the central niche.  In a few
temples the antarala serves as the navaranga too.
The next mantapa is navaranga, is a big hall used for
congregational services like singing, dancing, recitation of
mythological texts, religious discourses and so on. The navaranga
will usually be on a raised platform and will have nine anganas
(openings) and sixteen pillars.
This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a hall used for ceremonial
purposes. This leads to mukha mantapa the opening pavilion.
Prakara
The whole temple is surrounded by a high wall (prakara)
with one main and three subsidiary gates, opening in the
cardinal directions. A gopura (high tower,) adorns these
gateways.
These were of course later developments; and in due course
became characteristic features of South Indian temple
architecture. It is said, the Agama texts provide for as many
as 32 prakaras, the concentric – enclosing walls. But, they
recommend five to seven as advisable, in case more than
one enclosure is needed.  In many cases, the main area of
the temple, plus the halls, tanks, and gardens are
surrounded by a single wall (prakara) or enclosure. But many
major temples  do have a series of enclosures.  
As mentioned earlier the Sri Rangam temple has seven
enclosing walls, enveloping the whole township.
VIMANA
 The term Vimana has acquired various interpretations.
Sometimes the term Vimana stands for the temple.
Often, Vimana means the tower shikara, raised to its
final height above the sanctum .
 the term Vimana should, strictly, refer to the rotund
structure above the series of elevations (tala) which
stand on kapota (the flat roof over the sanctum).
vimana, should refer to the structure between the final
Tala and the stupi, the end. The Vimana rests or is
surrounded by the Kanta (neck).
 Another interpretation is that Sikhara meaning mountain
peak, refers to the rising tower of a temple constructed
as per the architecture of North India; and is it’s most
prominent and visible feature. While the Northern texts
identify the Sikhara as Prasada; the Southern texts call
them Vimana. The Vimana is pyramid like; and Prasada
is curvilinear in its outline. We may for the present go
with the last mentioned interpretation.

 The Dravida style is highly ornate; the Nagara style is simpler and
consists of a curvilinear dome. In the Vesara style, the dome is
highly ornate and emerges from the Sukanasi or from the richly
carved outer walls of the temple. In every style of
Sikhara/Vimanam, the structure culminates with a Kalashaat its
peak.
 The Vimana in the South Indian temple history had an interesting
career. For instance, the most magnificent Vimana of the Raja-
rajeshwara temple at Tanjavur (1009 AD) rises to an imposing
height of 58 meters. Another temple of the same period at
Gangaikonda-chola-puram (1025 AD) rises to a height of 48
meters. Thereafter, in the subsequent periods, the Vimanas tended
to grow shorter. But the Gopuras, the towers that stand over the
gate-ways (dwara-gopura) became increasingly ornate,
complicated and huge.
 The sanctity of Vimanas was not in any manner affected by its
diminished size. While the sculptures on the outer Gopuras could
house secular and even erotic themes, the Vimana had to be
austere and carry only the prescribed divinities associated with the
mula-bhera in the sanctum. The Vimana is verily the representation
or the outer visible form of the murthi that resides within it; and is
revered as such. It represents the glory (vaibhava) of the deity the
antaryamin who resides within it. The Gopura on the other hand
Ananda Nilaya Vimana is of Vesara architecture; and the Vimana is in
Dvitala, meaning that structure above the Kapotha slab has risen in two
stages; and on the top of the second tala is the Vimana, per se, in a rotund
shape. Its total height from its base to the top of the Kalasha is 32’08”
.Both the Talas are square in shape. The lower Tala depicts, in its four
sides, the icons of the Vaikhanasa School: Purusha, Sathya, Achtuta and
Aniruddha. The upper tala depicts about fifty-nine images including those
of Hanuman, Garuda and several Rishis. The most famous Sri Vimana
Venkateshwara is on the North face of the upper Tala.
The crowning glory of the Brihadeeswara
temple is the staggering cupola of the Vimana
comprising two huge, sculpted, granite blocks
weighing 40 tonnes each. The engineering
skills and the expertise that made the
mounting of these huge stones atop a
structure that is nearly 200 feet high must
have been way ahead of their times. Legend
says that the stone was brought
from Sarapallam (scaffold-hollow), four miles
north-east of the city, using a specially
designed ramp.
Vertically the vimana is organized by pilasters
that break up the facade of the base, creating
spaces for niches and windows in between. 
However, the temple departs from southern
Indian convention in one significant way: the
vimana is taller than the gopura (gateways) of
the temple’s walls.  Normally the gopuras are
taller than the vimana. The Vimana rises to a
height of abut 216 feet, a tower of fourteen
storeys. The basement of the structure which
supports the tower is 96 feet square. The
gilded Kalasa over it is 12.5 feet high. It is
GOPURAMS
 The case of major temples, the entire temple area is
surrounded by a series of conectric protective walls, the
prakaras. The lofty towers erected owers erected over the
entrance gateways of these walls are the Gopuras. These
rectangular, pyramidal towers, often fifty metres high
dominate the city skyline. And, adorned with intricate and
brightly painted sculptures of gods, demons, humans, and
animals, have become the hallmark of southern
architecture; though, strictly, they are not the essential
aspect of a temple layout or its structure.  The Gopura
emphasizes the importance of the temple within the city.
 The Gopura is a unique feature of the Dravidian
architecture. It had its origin and development in South; and
the other schools of architecture do not have equivalent
features. the older texts that the concept of Gopura 
originated from extensive cow-stalls (Go-griha) which was 
virtually a gate-house at the doorways of a huge building ,
monastery , temple or even a town (Pura-dvaram tu
gopuram I Dvara-matre tu gopuram I ). The Gopura,
 The advent of Gopura in Dravidian architecture was rather late.
The practice of erecting a Gopura at the entrance gateway to
the temple seems to have come into being during the mid-
12th century. And, with the decline of the mighty Cholas and
with the increasing threat from invading armies, the temple
cities (prominently Madurai and Sri Rangam) found it
expedient to erect a series of protective walls to safeguard and
defend their temples, palaces and cities. The Gopuras
constructed on the gateways leading from one enclosure to the
next, initially, served as watch and defensive towers.
 Agama texts mention that each enclosure must have door-
ways in all four directions
 A Gopura is generally constructed with a massive stone base
and a superstructure of brick and pilaster. It is rectangular in
plan and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned with a row of
finials.  It differs from the Vimanam in that it need not
necessarily be square-based. Above that rectangular base a
pyramidal structure covered with brightly coloured plethora of
sculpture is raised to a great height. A Gopura has to be
towering and massive.
Sri Ranganatha temple at Sri Rangam, which has seven
enclosure walls and as many as twenty-one Gopuras, halls,
other temples and township constructed over several
centuries. The seventh, the outer most, enclosure is 3072 feet
in length and 2521 feet in breadth; enclosing an area of about
six hundred acres.
 The grand Meenakshi temple in Madurai is another great
illustration of this development which was initiated by the Pandya
kings. It was during this period that the building of a temple
became the nucleus of a town-planning exercise, which we
discussed in the earlier parts of this article. 
 Though the evolution of the Dravidian temple architecture stalled
briefly after the demise of the Pandyan Empire, the architectural
expression scaled new heights during the reign of the Vijayanagara
kings (15th and 16th centuries). Although the later temples were
not huge in size, they often were of very fine workmanship. For
Dhvajastambha-Flag staff
The dhvajastambha (flag post) in front of either the garbhagrha or antarala or the mantapa is
another common feature of the temples. It should be perpendicular and directly opposite to the
idol. It will be located very close to perpendicular and directly opposite to the idol. It will be
located very close to the Bali pitha; and the Bali pitha will between the sanctum and
the Dwajasthamba. It represents the flag post of the ‘King of kings’. The lanchana (insignia)
made of copper or brass fixed like a flag to the top of the post varies according to the deity in
the temple. The figure on the lanchana is invariably that of the vahana (carrier vehicle) of the
deity. For instance, in Siva temples it contains Nandi. In Devi temples it is the lion that finds its
place. In Vishnu temples the Garuda gets that honour.
The practice of erecting tall columns of fifty to eighty feet in height appears to be of recent
origin. In the early stages, these flag posts were perhaps meant to indicate the position of the
sanctum. Even today, the temples in North India fly long flowing banners and flags from the
tower atop the sanctum.
In course of time the permanently fixed flag-staff became a common feature in temple
architecture. The older temples had flagstaffs made of stone. That gave place to the practice of
erecting a stone pillar or wooden pole covered with copper, brass, or even silver plates gilded
and installed on a raised stone platform, often square in shape,located in front of the sanctum.
The top portion of this tall mast will have three horizontal perches (symbolizing righteousness,
reputation and prosperity, or the three divinities Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver and
Siva the destroyer), pointing towards the sanctum.
The pedestal or the seat of the flag-staff as well as the mast with perches became highly
stylized in South India during the days of the Chola and Pallaya rulers, for the flag-staff was
uniquely a royal insignia.
UNIT-3
Hindu temple in Order
Nagara style
Vesara style
Dravida style
AIHOLE TEMPLE
Aihole (pronounced "Eye-hoé"), also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a
historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in north
Karnataka (India) dated from the fourth century through the twelfth century
CE.Located around an eponymous small village surrounded by farmlands and
sandstone hills, Aihole is a major archaeological site featuring over one hundred and
twenty stone and cave temples from this period, spread along the Malaprabha river
valley, in Bagalakote district.
Aihole is 22 miles (35 km) from Badami and about 6 miles (9.7 km) from Pattadakal,
both of which are major centers of historically important Chalukya monuments. Aihole,
along with nearby Badami (Vatapi), emerged by the 6th century as the cradle of
experimentation with temple architecture, stone artwork, and construction techniques.
This resulted in 16 types of free-standing temples and 4 types of rock-cut shrines. The
experimentation in architecture and arts that began in Aihole yielded the group of
monuments at Pattadakal, a UNESCO world heritage site.
Over one hundred Aihole temples are Hindu, a few are Jain and one is Buddhist. These
were built and coexisted in close proximity. The site is spread over about 5 square
kilometres (1.9 sq mi).The Hindu temples are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, Surya
and other Hindu deities. The Jain Basadi temples are dedicated to Mahavira,
Parshvanatha, Neminatha and other Jain Tirthankaras.The Buddhist monument is a
monastery. Both Hindu and Jain monuments include monasteries, as well as social
utilities such as stepwell water tanks with artistic carvings near major temples.
Significance of the Durga Temple Aihole:-

The Durga Temple Aihole is one of the architectural wonders of

Aihole. The Durga Temple Aihole is quadrilateral in shape. The contour of
the temple exhibits the Gajaprasta style, that is, the backside of an
elephant. Durga Temple Aihole is impressive with numerous pillar reliefs
which exhibit the unique Chalukya architectural style. Also known as the
fortress temple, the Durga Temple Aihole depicts a Buddhist chaitya and
is adorned with exquisite carvings. One of the most beautiful sculptures
of the Durga Temple Aihole is that of Goddess Durga.
    The seven headed serpent carved at the ceiling of the Durga Temple of
Aihole is another impressive work by the artisans. All the walls of the
Durga Temple are decorated with sculptures of Hindu gods and
goddesses. The temple also comes with a porch and an entrance to the
epistle. Through the porch you can enter the rooms of the temple. There
are several rooms within the Durga Temple along with a Garba Griha. This
is the main part of the shrine where the spirit of the shrine is located.
There are two main pillars of the temple, namely, the Mukha Mantapa
and the Sabha Mantapa.The elevated plinth, the high galleries and the
moulded adisthana are the other characteristics of the Durga Temple. The
fine sculptures of Lord Narashima, Goddess Chamundi and Lord Shiva are
the other attractions of the Durga Temple
  Lad Khan Temple:-

 Dedicated to Lord Shiva, this is one of the oldest Hindu temples of India. Located to the south of the Durga Temple, this
rock cut temple is exquisite with floral patterns and delicate lattice work on its floor and walls.
   
Ambigera Gudi Temple:-

 Situated just opposite to the Durga Temple, it is a complex of three temples. The Ambigera Gudi Temple is dedicated to
Lord Surya and Lord Vishnu and exhibits a beautifully engraved lotus at its ceiling. This 10th century construction reflects
the Nagara style of architecture with shikaras, mandapas and sanctums.
   
Mallikarjuna Temple:-

 Dedicated to Lord Shiva, this temple is located at the small town of Basaralu. Reflecting the Hoysala style of architecture,
this shrine comes with a trikuta, which means three shrines are connected with a common hall. Built over a platform, this
temple comes with a decorative pot, known as kalasa, a Hoysala crest, that is, the emblem of a Hoysala warrior and
decorative walls.
  
 Chikki Temple:-

 This is a Jain temple built in 1204 AD. The temple pillars are engraved with Kannada inscriptions which narrate the era of
Ratta King Kartaveerya IV and Sevuna Yadava Krishna.
   
Eniyar Temple:-

 A group of eight temples, this temple complex is located at the western outskirts of the Aihole village. While the first two
temples do not have images, the third temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva. The other temples are adorned with the images
of Gajalakshmi, Ganapati and Karthikeya.
   
Hucchimalli Temple:-

 One of the oldest temples of Aihole, the Hucchimalli Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple comes with a large
hall and engraved with beautiful works.
   
Jain temple, Meguti temple:-

 This Jain temple is located at a hilltop, just at 16 kms from Aihole. The temple is built with mortar and comes with a 16
columned porch and hall extensions.
   
Ravana Phadi rock-cut temple:-

 This is a sandstone temple of Aihole, dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple houses a wonderful sculpture of Nandi, the
NAGARA STYLE
Nagara style( Satwa/Indo-Aryan
style)
The Khajuraho Group of Monuments is a group of Hindu, Buddhist
and Jain temples in Madhya Pradesh, India, about 175 kilometres
(109 mi) southeast of Jhansi. They are one of the UNESCO World
Heritage Sites in India. The temples are famous for their nagara-
style architectural symbolism and their erotic sculptures.
Most Khajuraho temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the
Chandela Rajput dynasty.Historical records note that the Khajuraho
temple site had 85 temples by the 12th century, spread over 20
square kilometers Of these, only about 25 temples have survived,
spread over 6 square kilometers. Of the various surviving temples,
the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is decorated with a profusion of
sculptures with intricate details, symbolism and expressiveness of
ancient Indian art.
The Khajuraho group of temples were built together but were
dedicated to two religions, Hinduism and Jainism, suggesting a
tradition of acceptance and respect for diverse religious views
among Hindus and Jains in the region.
The temple site is within Vindhya mountain range in central India. An ancient local legend held that Hindu deity Shiva
and other gods enjoyed visiting the dramatic hill formation in Kalinjar area. The center of this region is Khajuraho,
set midst local hills and rivers. The temple complex reflects the ancient Hindu tradition of building temples where
gods love to pray.
The temples are clustered near water, another typical feature of Hindu temples. The current water bodies include Sib
Sagar, Khajur Sagar (also called Ninora Tal) and Khudar Nadi (river).The local legends state that the temple complex
had 64 water bodies, of which 56 have been physically identified by archeologists so far.
All temples, except one (Chaturbhuja) face sunrise - another symbolic feature that is predominant in Hindu temples.
The relative layout of temples integrate masculine and feminine deities and symbols highlight the interdependence.
The art work symbolically highlight the four goals of life considered necessary and proper in Hinduism - dharma,
kama, artha and moksha.
Of the surviving temples, 6 are dedicated to Shiva and his consorts, 8 to Vishnu and his affinities, 1 to Ganesha, 1 to
Sun god, 3 to Jain Tirthankars. For some ruins, there is insufficient evidence to assign the temple to specific deities
with confidence.
An overall examination of site suggests that the Hindu symbolic mandala design principle of square and circles is
present each temple plan and design.Further, the territory is laid out in three triangles that converge to form a
pentagon. Scholars suggest that this reflects the Hindu symbolism for three realms or trilokinatha, and five cosmic
substances or panchbhuteshvara.[The temple site highlights Shiva, the one who destroys and recycles life, thereby
controlling the cosmic dance of time, evolution and dissolution.
The temples have a rich display of intricately carved statues. While they are famous for their erotic sculpture, sexual
themes cover less than 10% of the temple sculpture. Further, most erotic scene panels are neither prominent nor
emphasized at the expense of the rest, rather they are in proportional balance with the non-sexual images. The
viewer has to look closely to find them, or be directed by a guide. The arts cover numerous aspects of human life
and values considered important in Hindu pantheon. Further, the images are arranged in a configuration to express
central ideas of Hinduism. All three ideas from Āgamas are richly expressed in Khajuraho temples - Avyakta,
Vyaktavyakta and Vyakta.
The Beejamandal temple is under excavation. It has been identified with the Vaidyanath temple mentioned in the
Grahpati Kokalla inscription.
Of all temples, the Matangeshvara temple remains an active site of worship.It is another square grid temple, with a
large 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) high and 1.1 metres (3.6 ft) diameter lingam, placed on a 7.6 metres (25 ft) diameter
platform.
The most visited temple, Kandariya Mahadev, has an area of about 6,500 square feet and a shikhara (spire) that rises
116 feet.
Nagara style in Kashmir
Shankaracharya Temple
 The temple rests on a solid rock. A 20-foot tall octagonal base supports a
square building on top. The terrace around the square temple is reached by
a stone staircase enclosed between two walls. A doorway on the opposite
side of the staircase leads to the interior, which is a small and dark
chamber, circular in plan. The ceiling is supported by four octagonal
columns, which surround a Basin containing a Lingam encircled by a snake.
Surya Mandir, Gwalior
Gujarat-Dwarka
The town of Dwarka in Gujarat has a history that dates back
centuries, and mentioned in the Mahabharat epic as the Dwaraka
Kingdom. Situated on the banks of river Gomti, the town is
described in legend as the capital of Lord Krishna. Evidence such as
a stone block with script, the way the stones were dressed showing
that dowels had been used, and an examination of anchors found on
the site suggest that the harbour site dates only to historical times,
with some of the underwater structure being late Medieval. Coastal
erosion was probably the cause of the destruction of what was an
ancient port.
Hindus believe that the original temple was constructed by
Vajranabh, the great grand son of Krishna, over the residential
palace of Krishna.
The current temple in Chaulukya style is constructed in 15-16th
century. The temple covers area of 27 metre by 21 metre with east-
west length of 29 metre and north-south width of 23 metres. The
tallest peak of the temple is 51.8 m high.
VASARA STYLE
Badami group of temples
The Bhutanatha group of temples is a cluster of sandstone shrines
dedicated to the deity Bhutanatha, in Badami town
of Karnataka state, India. There are two major temples here. Temple
No.1, on the east side of the lake, called the Bhutanatha temple has a
superstructure that resembles early South Indian style or North Indian
style with its open mantapa (hall or Veranda) extending into the lake,
while the smaller Temple No.2 on the north-east side of the lake,
sometimes called the Mallikarjuna group of temples, has a stepped
superstructure, commonly found in Kalyani Chalukya constructions. The
inner shrine and mantapa (hall) of Temple No.1 were constructed in the
late 7th century, during the reign of the Badami Chalukyas. While the
outer mantapa, facing the Badami tank, was completed during the rule
of the Kalyani Chalukyas of the 11th century. Hence the Bhutanatha
temple contain architectural forms from different periods. Studies show
that these Kalyani Chalukya architects could have belonged to the
same early phase workshop, that later built the nearby Yellamma
temple and the Mallikarjuna group of temples.
In the inner hall of the Bhutanatha temple, a heavy architrave above the
columns divides the hall into a central nave and two aisles. The pillars are
massive and the bays in the ceiling of the nave is decorated with
lotus rosette. Perforated windows bring dim light into the inner
mantapa. On either side of the foot of the shrine doorway is an image of
goddess Ganga on her vehicle, the makara, on the right, and on the left,
that of goddesses Yamuna riding the tortoise. There is no dedicatory block
upon the lintel to indicate to which deity the initial dedication was for.
The Shiva linga in the shrine appears to be a later addition after the
original deity in the sanctum was removed.
The temple is unfinished and at the base of the superstructure (Shikhara),
are vestiges of Jain architecture. The image niches on the wall of the
shrine and the hall are now empty though some decorative elements
like makharas (mythical beast) with long tails still remain.To the north of
the hall is a small shrine which was originally consecrated for Vishnu.
Following later Jain modifications, the temple was eventually taken over by
the followers of Lingayatism who built an outer hall and installed
a Nandi (vehicle of Shiva) and a Shiva linga inside the sanctum.
The Mallikarjuna group exhibits topological features popularised by the
Kalyani Chalukya architects, including plain walls, angled eaves over the
open mantapa (hall) and pyramid shaped superstructures made of closely
spaced horizontal tiers.
PATTADAKAL
 Pattadakal, alsocalled Paṭṭadakallu or Raktapura, is a complex of 7th and 8th
century CE Hindu and Jain temples in northern Karnataka (India). Located on the
west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district, this UNESCO World
Heritage site is 14 miles (23 km) from Badami and about 6 miles (9.7 km)
from Aihole, both of which are historically significant centres of Chaluky
monuments. The monument is a protected site under Indian law and is managed
by the Archaeological Survey of India
 The Pattadakal monuments reflect a fusion of two major Indian architectural
styles, one from north India (Rekha-Nagara-Prasada) and the other from south
India (Dravida-Vimana). Four temples were built in the Chalukya Dravida style,
four in the Nagara style of Northern India, while the Papanatha temple is a fusion
of the two. The nine Hindu temples are all dedicated to Shiva and are on the
banks of Malaprabha river. The oldest of these temples is Sangameshwara, which
was built during the reign of Vijayaditya Satyashraya, between 697 and 733 CE.
The largest of these temples in Pattadakal is the Virupaksha Temple, which was
built between 740 and 745 CE.
 The last temple built in the Group of Monuments is the Jain temple, known locally
as the Jain Narayana temple, which was likely built in the 9th century during the
reign of Krishna II of Rashtrakutas.Its style is patterned on the lines of
the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram
Kailasa temple, Ellora

The Kailash or Kailasanatha temple (Kailāsanātha) is

one of the largest Indian rock-cut ancient Hindu
temples located in the Ellor Caves, Maharashtra, India.
A megalith carved out of one single rock, it is
considered one of the most remarkable cave temples in
India because of its size, architecture and sculptural
treatment.
The Kailasa temple (Cave 16) is one of the 32 cave
temples and monasteries known collectively as
the Ellora Caves. Its construction is generally attributed
to the eighth century Rashtrakuta king Krishna I in 756-
773. The temple architecture shows traces
of Pallava and Chalukya styles.
The Kailasa temple architecture is different from the earlier style prevalent in
the Deccan region. As stated above, it appears to be based on the Virupaksha Temple
at Pattadakal and the Kailasa temple at Kanchi, but it is not an exact imitation of
these two temples. The southern influence on the temple architecture can be
attributed to the involvement of Chalukya and Pallava artists in its construction. The
indigenous Deccan artisans appear to have played a subordinate role in the temple's
construction.
The entrance to the temple courtyard features a low gopuram.Most of the deities at
the left of the entrance are Shaivaite (followers of Lord Shiva) while on the right hand
side the deities are Vaishnavaites (followers of Lord Vishnu). A two-storeyed gateway
opens to reveal a U-shaped courtyard. The dimensions of the courtyard are 82 m x 46
m at the base. The courtyard is edged by a columned arcade three stories high. The
arcades are punctuated by huge sculpted panels, and alcoves containing enormous
sculptures of a variety of deities. Originally flying bridges of stone connected these
galleries to central temple structures, but these have fallen.
Within the courtyard, there is a central shrine dedicated to Shiva, and an image of his
mount Nandi (the sacred bull). The central shrine housing the lingam features a flat-
roofed mandapa supported by 16 pillars, and a Dravidian shikhara. The shrine –
complete with pillars, windows, inner and outer rooms, gathering halls, and an
enormous stone lingam at its heart – is carved with niches, plasters, windows as well
as images of deities, mithunas (erotic male and female figures) and other figures. As
is traditional in Shiva temples, Nandi sits on a porch in front of the central temple. The
Nandi mandapa and main Shiva temple are each about 7 metres high, and built on
two storeys. The lower stories of the Nandi Mandapa are both solid structures,
decorated with elaborate illustrative carvings. The base of the temple has been
carved to suggest that elephants are holding the structure aloft. A rock bridge
connects the Nandi Mandapa to the porch of the temple. The base of the temple hall
features scenes from Mahabharata and Ramayana.
The

BELLUR
Chennakeshava Temple, also referred to
as Keshava, Kesava or Vijayanarayana Temple of Belur, is a 12th-century Hindu
temple in the Hassan district of Karnataka state, India. It was commissioned by
King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 CE, on the banks of the Yagachi River in Belur also
called Velapura, an early Hoysala Empire capital. The temple was built over three
generations and took 103 years to finish. It was repeatedly damaged and
plundered during wars, repeatedly rebuilt and repaired over its history. It is 35 km
from Hassan city and about 200 km from Bengaluru.
Chennakesava (lit, "handsome Kesava") is a form of the Hindu god Vishnu. The

temple is dedicated to Vishnu and has been an active Hindu temple since its
founding. It is reverentially described in medieval Hindu texts, and remains an
important pilgrimage site in Vaishnavism The temple is remarkable for its
architecture, sculptures, reliefs, friezes as well its iconography, inscriptions and
history. The temple artwork depicts scenes of secular life in the 12th century,
dancers and musicians, as well as a pictorial narration of Hindu texts such as
the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas through numerous friezes. It is a
Vaishnava temple that reverentially includes many themes
from Shaivism and Shaktism, as well as images of a Jina from Jainism and the
Buddha from Buddhism. The Chennakeshava temple is a testimony to the artistic,
cultural and theological perspectives in 12th century South India and the Hoysala
Empire rule
Halibedu
Hoysaleswara temple, also referred simply as the Halebidu temple, is a 12th-
century Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva. It is the largest monument in Halebidu, a town in the
state of Karnataka, India and the former capital of the Hoysala Empire. The temple was built on
the banks of a large man-made lake, and sponsored by King Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysala
Empire. Its construction started around 1121 CE and was complete in 1160 CE. During the early
14th century, Halebidu was twice sacked and plundered by the Muslim armies of Delhi
Sultanate from northern India, and the temple and the capital fell into a state of ruin and
neglect. It is 30 kilometres (19 mi) from Hassan city and about 210 kilometres (130 mi)
from Bengaluru
The Hoysaleswara temple is a Shaivism tradition monument, yet reverentially includes many
themes from Vaishnavism and Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, as well as images
from Jainism. The Hoysaleswara temple is a twin-temple dedicated to Hoysaleswara and
Santaleswara Shiva lingas, named after the masculine and feminine aspects, both equal and
joined at their transept. It has two Nandi shrines outside, where each seated Nandi face the
respective Shiva linga inside. The temple includes a smaller sanctum for the Hindu Sun
god Surya. It once had superstructure towers, but no longer and the temple looks flat. The
temple faces east, though the monument is presently visited from the north side. Both the main
temples and the Nandi shrines are based on a square plan.The temple was carved
from soapstone. It is notable for its sculptures, intricate reliefs, detailed friezes as well its history,
iconography, inscriptions in North Indian and South Indian scripts. The temple artwork provides a
pictorial window into the life and culture in the 12th century South India. About 340 large reliefs
depict the Hindu theology and associated legends. Numerous smaller friezes narrate Hindu texts
such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana. Some friezes below large
reliefs portray its narrative episodes.
Sringeri
Sharadamba Temple is a famous Hindu temple
dedicated to goddess Saraswati in the holy town
of Sringeri in Karnataka, India.
The Sharadamba Temple at Sringeri (Shringa giri
in Sanskrit) is an 8th-century temple, founded by
Sri Adi Shankaracharya. It housed a sandalwood
statue of Shardamba in a standing posture,
which was installed by Adi Shankarachaya until
the Vijayanagara rulers and Sri Vidyaranya (12th
Jagadguru) installed a seated gold statue of Sri
Shardamba in the 14th century.
Dravida style
Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple

The Kanchi Kailasanathar temple is the oldest

structure in Kanchipuram. Located in Tamil Nadu, India, it
is a Hindu temple in the Dravidian architectural style. It is
dedicated to the Lord Shiva, and is known for its historical
importance. The temple was built from 685-705AD by
a Rajasimha (Narasimhavarman II) ruler of the Pallava
Dynasty. The low-slung sandstone compound contains a
large number of carvings, including many half-animal
deities which were popular during the early Dravidian
architectural period. The structure contains 58 small
shrines which are dedicated to various forms of Shiva.
These are built into niches on the inner face of the high
compound wall of the circumambulatory passage. The
temple is one of the most prominent tourist attractions of
the city
The temple has retained the Pallava architecture in its original stylized form with
influence of the later styles developed by the Chola Dynasty and Vijayanagara
Emperors. It is of stone built architecture unlike the rock cut architecture built into
hallowed caves or carved into rock outcrops as in Mahabalipuram. The tall gopuram
(tower) is to the left and the temple complex is to the right. The temple's foundations
are made of granite, which could withstand the weight of the temple, while the
superstructure, including the carvings, are all made of sandstone. Initially, only the
main sanctuary existed with pyramidal vimana and a detached mandapa (main hall).

The temple complex is complete in all respects as it has garbagriha (sanctum

sanctorum), antarala (inner enclosure), mandapa, a high compound wall, and an
entrance gate, the gopuram.The mandapa, which was initially detached, was made
part of the main shrine by interposing an ardhamantapa (smaller hall). The pillars of
the mandapa have the repetitive features of mythical lion mounts.
The structure has a simple layout with a tower or vimana at the center of the
complex. The vimana of the temple, above the main shrine (sanctum sanctorum), is
square in plan and rises up in a pyramidal shape. The tower has many levels rising
proportionately.At the top of this tower, there is a small roof in the shape of a dome.
The pillar elements with mythical animal shapes (lions on the base) are extra features
in Pallava style. At the entrance, the gopuram walls are plastered. Its entrance wall
has eight small shrines and a gopura, precursor to the main gopura. At some later
stage, the mandapa and the sanctuary were joined by an intermediate hall called
the ardhamantapa, which is reported to have marred the beauty of the temple to
some extent. The temple is enclosed within walls in a rectangular layout.
Mahabalipuram
Pancha Rathas (also known as Five Rathas or Pandava Rathas) is a
monument complex at Mahabalipuram, on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay
of Bengal, in the Kancheepuram district of the state of Tamil Nadu, India.
Pancha Rathas is an example of monolithic Indian rock-cut architecture. The
complex was carved during the reign of King Narasimhavarman I (630–668
AD): the idea of realising monolithic buildings, an innovation in Indian
architecture, is attributed to this ruler. The complex is under the auspices of
the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and is part of the UNESCO World
Heritage site inscribed by UNESCO as Group of Monuments at
Mahabalipuram.
Each of the five monuments in the Pancha Rathas complex resembles a
chariot (ratha), and each is carved over a single, long stone or monolith, of
granite which slopes in north-south direction with a slight incline.Though
sometimes mistakenly referred to as temples, the structures were never
consecrated because they were never completed following the death of
Narasimhavarman I. The structures are named after the Pancha Pandavas and
their common wife Draupadi, of epic Mahabharatafame. In order of their size,
they include the Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Nakula
Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi Ratha.
Layout
Each of the five rathas is a monolith, carved whole from a rock outcropping of pink
granite. They are carved over a common mounted plinth which is north-south oriented
with a slight slope. Each has a different layout, such as square, rectangular,
or apsidal plans. The largest measures 42 by 35 feet (13 m × 11 m), and the tallest is
40 feet (12 m) high.
Representations
The Pancha rathas represent the diversity of Dravidian architecture of the time and it is
likely that their original design traces back to wood constructions of temple chariots
and were scale models or templates for much bigger temples built subsequently in
Tamil Nadu.Most of the rathas are stated to be modelled on the Buddhist Viharas and
Chaityas.
Design
The structural design and elevation are with towers or domes with single (ekathala) to
triple (trithala) towers, which present a unique exhibition of South Indian Dravidian
architecture. The chiseling done by the stone sculptors are occasional along joints
between the stones. The walls are arranged and sequentially partitioned. The
projections and recesses in these walls give the appearance of a set of shallow
pilasters. The niches created in the walls are of rectangular shape and have carved
sculptures of gods, demi-gods and the kings. The skirting around the images are of
wild aquatic animals with "foliated tails and open jaws.The wall pilasters have curved
brackets, and columns on the porch provide support to an overhanging eave; arch
windows occasionally carved with images are located above them. The mouldings
culminate in parapets. The carvings above the eave overhangs are decorated roof
forms in miniature size, which are seen in rows all round each of the structure.
Brihadishvara temple
Brihadishvara Temple, also called Rajarajesvaram or Peruvudaiyar Koyil, is
a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva located in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India.It is one of the
largest South Indian temples and an exemplary example of a fully realized Dravidian
architecture. It is called as Dhakshina Meru(Meru of south). Built by Raja Raja Chola
Ibetween 1003 and 1010 AD, the temple is a part of the UNESCO World Heritage
Site known as the "Great Living Chola Temples", along with the Chola
dynasty era Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple and Airavatesvara temple that are about
70 kilometres (43 mi) and 40 kilometres (25 mi) to its northeast respectively.
The original monuments of this 11th century temple were built around a moat. It included
gopura, the main temple, its massive tower, inscriptions, frescoes and sculptures
predominantly related to Shaivism, but also of Vaishnvaism and Shaktism traditions of
Hinduism. The temple was damaged in its history and some artwork is now missing.
Additional mandapam and monuments were added in centuries that followed. The temple
now stands amidst fortified walls that were added after the 16th century.
Built out of granite, the vimana tower above the sanctum is one of the tallest in South
India. The temple has a massive colonnaded prakara (corridor) and one of the largest
Shiva lingas in India.It is also famed for the quality of its sculpture, as well as being the
location that commissioned the brass Nataraja – Shiva as the lord of dance, in 11th
century. The complex includes shrines for Nandi, Parvati, Kartikeya, Ganesha,
Sabhapati, Dakshinamurti, Chandeshvara, Varahi and others. The temple is one of the
most visited tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu
The Brihadeshvara temple plan and development utilizes
the axial and symmetrical geometry rules. It is classified as Perunkoil (also called Madakkoil), a
big temple built on a higher platform of a natural or man-made mounds. The temple complex is
a rectangle that is almost two stacked squares, covering 240.79 metres (790.0 ft) east to west,
and 121.92 metres (400.0 ft) north to south. In this space are five main sections: the sanctum
with the towering superstructure (sri vimana), the Nandi hall in front (Nandi-mandapam) and in
between these the main community hall (mukhamandapam), the great gathering hall
(mahamandapam) and the pavilion that connects the great hall with the sanctum
(ardhamandapam).
The temple complex integrates a large pillared and covered veranda (prakara) in its spacious
courtyard, with a perimeter of about 450 metres (1,480 ft) for circumambulation. Outside this
pillared veranda there are two walls of enclosure, the outer one being defensive and added in
1777 CE by the French colonial forces with gun-holes with the temple serving as an arsenal.
They made the outer wall high, isolating the temple complex area. On its east end is the
original main gopuram or gateway that is barrel vaulted. It is less than half the size of the main
temple's vimana. Additional structures were added to the original temple after the 11th
century, such as a mandapa in its northeast corner and additional gopurams (gateways) on its
perimeters to allow people to enter and leave from multiple locations.Some of the shrines and
structures were added during the Pandya, Nayaka, Vijayanagara and Maratha era, before the
colonial era started, and these builders respected the original plans and symmetry rules. Inside
the original temple courtyard, along with the main sanctum and Nandi-mandapam are two
major shrines, one for Kartikeya and for Parvati. The complex has additional smaller shrines.
The Brihadisvara temple continued the Hindu temple traditions of South India by adopting
architectural and decorative elements, but its scale significantly exceeded the temples
constructed before the 11th century. The Chola era architects and artisans innovated the
expertise to scale up and build, particularly with heavy stone and to accomplish the 63.4
metres (208 ft) high towering vimana
The temple faces east, and once had a water moat around it. This has been
filled up. The fortified wall now runs around this moat. The two walls have
ornate gateways called the gopurams. These are made from stone and display
entablature. The main gateways are on the east side. The first one is called
the Keralantakan tiruvasal, which means the "sacred gate of the Keralantakan".
The word Keralantakan was the surname of king Rajaraja who built it. About a
100 metres (330 ft) ahead is the inner courtyard gopuram called the Rajarajan
tiruvasal. This is more decorated than the Keralantakan tiruvasal, such as with
its adhishthanam relief work narrating scenes from the Puranas the shrines are
all signed to east-west and north-west cardinal directions. The complex can be
entered either on one axis through a five-story gopuram or with a second
access directly to the huge main quadrangle through a smaller free-
standing gopuram. The gopuram of the main entrance is 30 m high, smaller
than the vimana.
The main temple-related monuments and the great tower is in the middle of
this courtyard.Around the main temple that is dedicated to Shiva, are smaller
shrines, most of which are aligned axially. These are dedicated to his consort
Parvati, his sons Subrahmanya and Ganesha, Nandi, Varahi, Karuvur deva
(the guru of Rajaraja Chola), Chandeshvara and Nataraja.The Nandi mandapam
has a monolithic seated bull facing the sanctum. In between them are stairs
leading to a columned porch and community gathering hall, then an inner
mandapa connecting to the pradakshina patha, or circumambulation path.
The Nandi (bull) facing the mukh-mandapam weighs about 25 tonnes. It is
made of a single stone and is about 2 m in height, 6 m in length and 2.5 m in
width. The image of Nandi is a monolithic one and is one of the largest in the
country
Meenakshi Temple
Meenakshi Temple, also referred to as Meenakshi Amman or Minakshi-
Sundareshwara Temple, [1] is a historic Hindu temple located on the southern bank of
the Vaigai River in the temple city of Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. It is dedicated
to Meenakshi, a form of Parvati, and her consort, Sundareshwar, a form of Shiva. The
temple is at the center of the ancient temple city of Madurai mentioned in the Tamil
Sangam literature, with the goddess temple mentioned in 6th century CE texts.
Though the temple has historic roots, most of the present campus structure was
rebuilt after the 14th century CE, further repaired, renovated and expanded in the
17th century by Thirumalai Nayak.In the early 14th century, the armies of Delhi
Sultanate led by Muslim Commander Malik Kafur  plundered the temple, looted it of
its valuables and destroyed the Madurai temple town along with many other temple
towns of South India.[ The contemporary temple is the result of rebuilding efforts
started by the Vijayanagara Empire rulers who rebuilt the core and reopened the
temple.  In the 16th century, the temple complex was further expanded and fortified
by the Nayak ruler Vishwanatha Nayakar and later others. The restored complex now
houses 14 gopurams (gateway towers), ranging from 45–50m in height, with the
southern gopura tallest at 51.9 metres (170 ft). The complex has numerous sculpted
pillared halls such as Ayirakkal (1,000 pillar hall), Kilikoondu-mandapam, Golu-
mandapam and Pudu-mandapam. Its shrines are dedicated to Hindu deities and
Shaivism scholars, with the vimanas above the garbhagrihas (sanctums) of
Meenakshi and Sundaresvara gilded with gold
The temple complex is spread over about 14 acres (5.7 ha). The courtyard is close to a square with
each side of about 800 feet, but more accurately a rectangle with one side about 50 feet longer. The
complex has numerous shrines and mandapas, of which the most important and largest are the two
parallel shrines in the innermost courtyard, one for Meenakshi (B on the plan) and other for
Sundareshvara (A). Additionally, the complex has a golden lotus sacred pool (L) for pilgrims to bathe
in, a thousand pillar hall choultry with extensive sculpture (Q), the kalyana mandapa or wedding hall,
many small shrines for Hindu deities and for scholars from the sangam (academy) history, buildings
which are religious schools and administrative offices, elephant sheds, equipment sheds such as
those for holding the chariots used for periodic processions and some gardens. The temple is
embedded inside a commercial hub and traditional markets
Walls
The ancient temple complex was open. The courtyard walls were added over time in response to
invasion and the plunder of the temple complex. According to the text Thirupanimalai, the
Vijayanagara commander Kumara Kampana after completing his conquest of Madurai, rebuilt the
pre-existing structure and built defensive walls around the temple in the 14th century. Lakana
Nayakar added the defensive walls around the first prakara (courtyard), as well as expanded and
renovated the Mahamandapa and Meenakshi shrine about the middle of the 15th century.

Gopurams
The shrines of Meenakshi temple are embedded inside three walled enclosures and each of these have
four gateways, the outer tower growing larger and reaching higher to the corresponding inner one.
The temple has 14 gopurams, the tallest of which is southern tower, rises to over 170 ft (52 m) and
was rebuilt in the late 16th century. The oldest gopuram is the eastern one (I on plan), built
by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan during 1216-1238 Each gopuram is a multi-storeyed structure,
covered with sculpture painted in bright hues. The outer gopurams are high pyramidal tower serving
as a landmark sign for arriving pilgrims, while the inner gopuram are smaller and serve as the
entrance gateways to various shrines
The sacred temple tank is called Porthamarai Kulam ("Pond with the
golden lotus"). It is also referred to as Adhi Theertham, Sivaganga
and Uthama Theertham. The pool is 165 ft (50 m) by 120 ft (37 m)
in size. The pool walls were painted with frescoes. Only a fraction
of 17th and 18th-century paintings of Nayak period survives and
one such portion is found in the small portico on the western side
of the tank. It depicts the marriage of Sundareswarar and
Meenkashi attended by Vijayaranga Chokkanatha and Rani
Mangammal. The painting is executed on a vivid red background,
with delicate black linework and large areas of white, green and
ochre. The celestial couple is seated inside an architectural frame
with a flowering tree in the background.
Halls
The temple complex has many mandapas (pillared-halls) built by
kings and wealthy patrons over the centuries. They are choultry or
a place for the pilgrims to rest. Some of these mandapas include
Chinnappa Nayakkar
Kambathadi mandapam
Kilikoondu Mandapam
Srinangam
The Sri Ranganathaswamy
Temple or Thiruvarangam is a Hindu temple dedicated
to Ranganatha, a reclining form of the Hindu deity Vishnu,
located in Srirangam, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu,
India. Constructed in the Dravidian Architecture, this
temple is glorified by Alvars in their Divya Prabhanda and
is one among the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu.
The temple occupies an area of 155 acres (63 ha) with 50
shrines, 21 towers, 39 pavilions and many water tanks
integrated into the complex making it the world's largest
functioning Hindu temple. The temple town is a
significant archaeological and epigraphical site, providing
a historic window into the early and mid medieval South
Indian society and culture. 
The temple is enclosed by 7 concentric enclosures with courtyards (termed prakarams or mathil suvar). Each layer
has walls and gopurams, which were built or fortified in and after the 16th century. These walls total 32,592 feet
(9,934 m) or over six miles. The temple has 17 major gopurams (towers, 21 total), 39 pavilions, 50 shrines, 9
sacred water pools, Ayiram kaal mandapam (a hall of 1000 pillars) and several small water bodies inside.
The temple is aligned to the north-south and east-west axis, on an island surrounded by the Kaveri River. The river
has long been considered sacred, and called the Daksina Ganga or the "Ganges of the South. The outer
two prakarams (outer courtyard) are residential and markets with shops, restaurants and flower stalls.The five
inner courtyards have shrines to Vishnu and his various avatars such as Rama and Krishna. Major shrines are
additionally dedicated to goddess Lakshmi and many saints of Vaishnavism. In particular, these shrines celebrate
and commemorate the Bhakti movement poet-saints called the Alvars, as well Hindu philosophers such as
Ramanuja and Vedantadesika of Sri Vaishnavism tradition.
Despite the construction of various mandapas and gopuras over a span of many centuries, the architecture of the
Ranganathaswamy temple is one of the better illustrations of Hindu temple planometric geometry
per agama design texts in the Tamil tradition. According to George Michell, a professor and art historian on Indian
architecture, the regulating geometry and plan of Srirangam site takes on "a ritual dimension since all the
architectural components, especially the focal gopuras and the most important colonnades and mandapas, are
arranged along the axes dictated by the cardinal directions". This alignment integrates the routes that devotees
follow as they journey unto the innermost sanctum.
Mandabam
Thousand pillar mandapam is a theatre like structure made from granite. It was built during the Vijayanagara
rule period. It has a central wide aisle with seven side aisles on each side with pillars set in a square pattern.
Sesharaya mandapam is the intricately carved hall built during the Nayaka rule period. It is found on the east
side of the fourth prakaram courtyard. The northern side of this community hall has 40 leaping animals with
riders on their back, all carved out of monolithic pillars.
Garuda Mandapam is named after the vahana (vehicle) of Vishnu, named Garuda. It is on the south side of the
third prakaram courtyard. It too is dated to the Nayak rule era. Inside the community hall, on its pillars, are
portrait sculptures. In the middle is a free-standing seated Garuda figure, identifiable by his eagle-head, wings
and him facing the Vishnu shrine.
The Hall of 1000 pillars (actually 953) is a fine example of a planned theatre-like structure and opposite to it is
the "Sesha Mandap". The 1000-pillared hall made of granite was constructed in the Vijayanagara period (1336–
1565) on the site of the old temple
GOPURAM
There are 21 gopurams (tower gateways), among which the towering Rajagopuram (shrine of the main gateway)
is the tallest temple tower in Asia. The 13-tiered Rajagopuram was built in 1987 by Ahobhila Matha, a historic
Srivaishnava Hindu monastery. This tower dominates the landscape for miles around, while the remaining 20
gopurams were built between the 12th and early 17th centuries. The gopurams have pronounced projections
in the middle of the long sides, generally with openings on each of the successive levels. The Vellai
gopura (white tower) on the east side of the fourth enclosure has a steep pyramidal superstructure that
reaches a height of almost 44 metres (144 ft).The structure of the Rajagopuram remained incomplete for over
400 years. Started during the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya of Vijayanagara Empire, the construction stopped
after the fall of Vijayanagara in late 16th century and wars thereafter. The Rajagopuram (the main gopuram)
did not reach its current height of 73 metres (240 ft) until 1987, when the 44th Jiyar (acharya, chief counsellor)
of Ahobila Matha began collecting donations to complete it. The whole structure was constructed in a span of
eight years. The Rajagopuram was consecrated on 25 March 1987. The length and breadth at the base of the
Rajagopuram is 166 and 97 feet (50.6 and 29.6 m), while the length and breadth at the top is 98 and 32 feet
(29.9 and 9.8 m). The 13 glistening copper 'kalasams' atop the tower weigh 135 kg (298 lb) each, are 3.12 m
(10 ft 3 in) high with a 1.56 m (5 ft 1 in) diameter vessel.
Granaries, tanks and other monuments
The Ranganathaswamy Temple complex includes huge medieval era Kottarams or granaries. These provided
food reserves and security to the temple town and supplies to its kitchen serving the needy travelers, pilgrims
and local population. The temple has many other structures, participating and supporting various aspects of
social life. Some mandapams and temple compounds were devoted to education, both religious and secular
such as of musicians and dancers. The temple inscriptions state that its premises had
an arokyashala (hospital) for those needing medical care. Several 11th and 12th century inscriptions describe
a gift of land to support recitation of Hindu texts in the temple and for feeding Sri Vaishnavas.
The temple has twelve major water tanks. Of these, the Surya Pushkarini (sun pool) and Chandra Pushkarani
(moon pool) are two of the largest that harvest most of rain water. They have a combined capacity of two
million liters of water.
The temple has wooden monuments that is regularly maintained and used for festive processions. These have
intricate carvings of Hindu legends, and some are plated with silver or gold foils. The most significant of the
temple chariots are the Garuda vahana, the Simha vahana, the Yanai vahana, the Kudirai vahana, the
Hanumantha vahana, the Yazhi vahana, the Sesha vahana, the Annapakshi vahana, the Otrai vahana and the
Prabhai vahana
Chera’s
Trichur
Vadakkunnathan Temple is an ancient Hindu
temple dedicated to Shiva at city of Thrissur,
of Kerala state in India. This temple is a classic
example of the architectural style of Kerala and
has monumental towers on all four sides and also
a kuttambalam. Mural paintings depicting various
episodes from Mahabharata can be seen inside the
temple. The shrines and the Kuttambalam display
vignettes carved in wood. The temple, along with
the mural paintings, has been declared as a
National Monument by India.
The main deity of this temple, Lord Shiva, is worshipped in the form of a huge lingam,
which is covered under a mound of ghee, formed by the daily abhishekam (ablution)
with ghee over the years. A devotee looking into the sanctum can now see only a 16-
foot-high (4.9 m) mound of ghee embellished with thirteen cascading crescents of gold
and three serpent hoods on top. According to traditional belief, this represents the
snow-clad Mount Kailash, the abode of Shiva. This is the only temple where the lingam
is not visible. It is said that the ghee offered here for centuries does not have any foul
odour and it does not melt even during summer.
In the outer temple, there are shrines for Krishna (Gosala Krishna; or Gopala Krishna ;
Krishna as a cowherd), Shiva's bull vahana (vehicle) Nandikeswara, Parashurama,
Simhodara, Ayyappa (Shiva's son, especially venerated in Kerala), Vettekkaran (Shiva
as a hunter), Serpent deities and Adi Shankara. Outside the main temple, there are
shrines for Lord Subrahmanya and Lord Ganapathi. Located on the verandah of
the Nalambalam is a large white bull Nandikeswara. It is inn the northern side that the
main sanctum, a circular structure with Shiva facing west and behind him, Parvati
facing east, denoting their combined form Ardhanarishvara, is made. The two-storied
rectangular shrine of the god Rama facing west is located in the south. Between these
two sanctums (srikovils) stands a third one, circular and double-storied in shape, which
is dedicated to Shankaranarayana, the combined form of Shiva and Vishnu, facing west.
There are mukhamandapams (halls) in front of all the three central shrines. The two
important murals in the temple, Vasukisayana and Nrithanatha (Nataraja), are
worshipped regularly. Ganesha shrine is positioned facing the temple kitchen. The
offering of Appam (sweetened rice cake fried in ghee) to him is one of the most
important offerings at the temple. Propitiating him here is believed to be a path to
prosperity and wealth.
Thiruvananthapuram
Padmanabhaswamy Temple is located
in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. The temple is built in an intricate
fusion of the indigenous Kerala style and the Tamil style(kovil) of
architecture associated with the temples located in the neighbouring
state of Tamil Nadu, featuring high walls, and a 16th-
century Gopuram. While the Moolasthanam of the temple is
the Ananthapuram Temple in Kumbala in Kasargod District,
architecturally to some extent, the temple is a replica of the Adikesava
Perumal temple located in Thiruvattar, Kanyakumari District.
The temple lays over a platform. The platforms in front of
the vimanam and where the deity rests are both carved out of a single
massive stone and hence called "Ottakkal-mandapam". On the orders
of Marthanda Varma (1706–58), the Ottakkal-mandapam was cut out of
a rock at Thirumala, about 4 miles (6.4 km) north of the temple. It
measured 20 square feet (1.9 m2; 190 dm2; 19,000 cm2) in area by 2.5
feet (30 in; 7.6 dm; 76 cm) thick and was placed in front of the deity in
the month of Edavom 906 M.E. (1731 CE).
Gopuram
The foundation of the present gopuram was laid in 1566.The
temple has a 100-foot (30 m), 7-tier gopuram made in
the Pandyan style. The temple stands by the side of a tank,
named Padma Theertham(meaning the lotus spring). The
temple has a corridor with 365 and one-quarter sculptured
granite-stone pillars with elaborate carvings which stands out
to be an ultimate testimonial for the Vishwakarma sthapathis
in sculpting this architectural masterpiece. This corridor
extends from the eastern side into the sanctum sanctorum.
An 80-foot (24 m) flagstaff stands in front of the main entry
from the prakaram(closed precincts of a temple). The ground
floor under the gopuram (main entrance in the eastern side)
is known as the 'Nataka Sala' where the famous temple
art Kathakali was staged in the night during the ten-
day uthsavam (festival) conducted twice a year, during
the Malayalam months of Meenam and Thulam.