Sensory System

Copyright Mr. Antonio Morales

Chapter Contents:

A. External Sensation
B. The Visual Sense: How we see
C. The Auditory Sense: How we hear
D. The Chemical Sense: How we smell, taste
E. The Somatosensation: How we feel something in the body
External Sensation
External Sensation

External Sensation – is a
sentient cognitive process by
which we become aware of the
external qualities of a stimulus
through the
excitation/activation of the
receptor and the transmission of
the nerve impulses to the brain
center where perception takes
place.
External Sensation

Four Elements of External

Sensation:
1) Stimulus – activate the
receptor
 External Sensation

2) Receptor – specific for a

particular sense modality; when
activated, transduction takes
place

• Transduction - the process by

which a sense organ changes
or transforms particular
physical stimuli into impulses
which are electrochemical in
nature
 External Sensation

3) Nerve
Fibers/Transmissors –
bring the neural impulses
to the brain center
 External Sensation

4) Brain Center – where

perception takes place

• Perception – the
interpretation of the
stimulus or the giving
of meaning to a
sensory experience.
External Sensation: The Stimulus
Stimulus

Stimulus – is any change

in the environment that is
capable of eliciting a
response or a reaction.
 Stimulus

Classification of Stimulus Based on

Intensity:
a) Subminimal/Subthreshold Stimulus –
so weak it cannot elicit a response
• It can elicit a response provided that it is
repeatedly applied to the same receptor.

b) Threshold Stimulus/Minimal Stimulus

– least amount of stimulus capable of
eliciting a response
Stimulus

Classification of Stimulus Based on

Nature:
a) Mechanical Energy – light or
heavy
Stimulus

Classification of Stimulus Based on

Nature:
b) Chemical
• Gas – Olfactory
• Liquid - Gustatory
Stimulus

Classification of Stimulus Based on

Nature:
c) Kinetic Energy – for
kinaesthesia or sense of
movement
Stimulus

Classification of Stimulus Based on

Nature:
d) Low Radiant Energy – Cold
e) High Radiant Energy - Warm
Stimulus

There will be no sensation if there

is no stimulus since the stimulus is
the one that triggers the process of
sensation.
External Sensation: The Receptor
Receptor

Receptors – are peripheral

terminations of sensory
fibers
 Receptor

Exteroceptors – sensory
receptors found on the external
surface of the body
• Contact Receptors -
Mechanoreceptor; Taste buds
• Teloceptors - can be activated
by a distant stimulus; Olfactory
Receptor; Auditory Receptor;
Visual Receptor
Receptor

Proprioceptors – found in the

muscles, joints, tendons, and
ligaments; we become aware of
our positions and movements
Receptor

• Interoceptors/Visceroceptors
– located in the visceral or
internal organs; stomach
pains or unpleasant sensation
in our gastro-intestinal or
urinary tract
External Sensation: The Fiber Tract
Fiber Tract

• Fiber Tract – bundle of fibers coming from the

same origin with the same destination and
performing the same function

• All sensory impulses are transmitted by the

ascending fiber tracts
External Sensation: The Brain Center
Brain Center

• The ascending fiber tracts transmit the sensory

impulses to the cerebral cortex particularly the
primary sensory area by passing through the
thalamus of the interbrain
Brain Center

• The thalamus serves as the last relay center of all

sensory impulses with the exception of the
olfactory sense.
The Visual Sense: How we see
The Visual Sense

• The stimulus for vision is the light waves from the

visible spectrum containing the spectral colors
with red having the longest wavelength and violet
with the shortest wavelength.
• Light - waves of electromagnetic energy between
380 and 760 nanometers in length.
The Visual Sense

Two Properties of Light:

a) Wavelength – determines the perception of color
b) Intensity – determines the perception of
brightness
Visual Sensation
Structures and Functions of the Eye
 Structures and Functions of the Eye
• Sclera –  also known as the white of the eye, is the
opaque, fibrous, protective, outer layer of
the eye containing collagen and elastic fiber
• Choroid - is the vascular layer of the eye,
containing connective tissue, and lying between
the retina and the sclera.
• Retina
 Structures and Functions of the Eye
1. Cornea – Light enters the
eye through the cornea, a
transparent dome on the
front surface of the eye.

• The cornea serves as a

protective covering for the
front of the eye and also helps
focus light on the retina at
the back of the eye.
 Structures and Functions of the Eye
2. Aqueous Humor –
Right behind the cornea is
a liquid called the
aqueous humor, which
nourishes the internal
structures .
 Structures and Functions of the Eye

3. Pupil – It is a hole
located in the center of
the iris that allows light
to enter the retina.
 Structures and Functions of the Eye
4. Iris – It is a thin, circular
structure in the eye,
responsible for controlling the
diameter and size of the
pupil and thus the amount of
light reaching the retina. The
color of the iris is often
referred to as "eye color."
 Pupil and Iris

Light enters the eye

through the pupil, the
hole in the iris.
 Pupil and Iris
The adjustment of pupil size in
response to changes in
illumination represents a
compromise between:
1. Sensitivity - the ability to
detect the presence of dimly
lit objects
2. Acuity - the ability to see the
details of objects
Pupil and Iris
 When the level of
illumination is high and
sensitivity is thus not
important, the pupil constricts.
 When the pupils are
constricted, the image falling
on each retina is sharper and
there is a greater depth of focus
- Acuity
Pupil and Iris

When the level of illumination

is too low, the pupils dilate to
let in more light, thereby
sacrificing depth of focus -
↓Acuity
 Pupil and Lens

5. Lens - Behind each pupil is

a lens, which focuses
incoming light on the retina.
 Pupil and Lens

When we direct our gaze at

something near, the tension
on the ligaments holding each
lens in place is adjusted by the
ciliary muscles, and the lens
assumes its natural cylindrical
shape.
 Pupil and Lens

When we focus on a distant

object, the lens is flattened.
Pupil and Lens

Accommodation – it is the
process of adjusting the
configuration of the lenses
to bring images into focus
on the retina
 Structures and Functions of the Eye
6. Retina – This is the
photosensitive area of the
eye containing the rods
and cones.
Rods and Cones: The Photoreceptors
 Rods and Cones: The Photoreceptors
• Cones – photoreceptors that are responsible for color
vision and are most functional in conditions of bright
light.
• Rods – photoreceptors that function in low illumination
and play a key role in night vision; responsive to dark and
light contrast.
 Rods and Cones: The Photoreceptors

Once the rods and cones of the retina are activated, transduction
takes place converting the physical stimulus into neural impulses.
 Rods and Cones: The Photoreceptors

The neural impulses are transmitted back to the bipolar cells onto
the multipolar ganglion cells.
 Rods and Cones: The Photoreceptors

The axons of the multipolar ganglion cells form a bundle of fibers

called the optic nerve.
The Fiber Tract: The Optic Nerve
 The Fiber Tract: The Optic Nerve

• The optic nerve

brings the visual
impulses to the
lateral
geniculate
nucleus located
in the thalamus.
 The Fiber Tract: The Optic Nerve

• The lateral geniculate

nucleus is the last relay
station for vision.
• This nucleus gives rise to a
bundle of fibers that are
transmitting the visual
impulses to the primary
visual are called striate
cortex.
The Brain Center: Striate Cortex
 The Brain Center: Striate Cortex

The striate cortex is the

primary visual area. That
is located in the occipital
lobe, both hemispheres.
 The Visual Pathway

Light energy Light enters the

Light passes The light passes The lens focuses
enters at the interior of the
through the through the lens the light to the
cornea eye through the
aqueous humor retina
pupil

The ganglion The rods and cones

Lateral cells transmit transmit the neural The
Striate Geniculate the neural impulse into the photoreceptors in
Cortex Nucleus of the impulse via bipolar cells then the retina convert
thalamus the optic to the ganglion light energy into
nerve cells neural impulses
The Blindspot
 Blindspot

• At the point of exit of

the optic nerve, there
is a point that is devoid
of rods and cones.
• There is no retinal
image formed on the
blind spot
The Binocular Disparity
 Binocular Disparity

• Since we have two eyes, there

are two retinal images that are
formed, one in the left eye and
the other in the right eye.
• The left eye sees more of the left
side of the stimulus whereas the
right sees more of the right side
of the stimulus.
Visual Cortices in the Brain
Visual Cortices in the Brain

Sensory areas in the brain are in a hierarchical

organization:
1) Primary sensory area
2) Secondary sensory area
3) Sensory association area
 Visual Cortices in the Brain

For the visual sense:

1) Primary visual area: Striate
Cortex
- It is the primary visual area
for awareness of basic visual
information.
- Most of the neural impulses it
receives come from the
lateral geniculate nucleus
 Visual Cortices in the Brain

2) Secondary visual area:

Pre-striate cortex,
Inferotemporal Cortex
- Most of the neural impulses
it receives come from the
primary visual area for the
elaboration of information
 Visual Cortices in the Brain

3) Visual association area:

Posterior parietal cortex
- Most of the neural impulses it
receives come from secondary
visual cortex.
- The association areas performs
the most complicated
functions such as the meaning
interpretation of the stimuli
which requires visual analysis.
 Visual Cortices in the Brain

• Primary visual area – “I see something

red”

• Secondary visual area and Visual

association area – “I see a red gown
worn by the debutante”