1

Sources & Loads

ME 324
October 2, 2000

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 2

Source / Load Characteristics

Operating
Source Load point where
Characteristics Characteristics source/load
curves cross
Load

Load
Load

Speed Speed Speed

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 3

Sources

• Sources provide power to a system

• Power = force x velocity for linear system
• Power = torque x angular velocity for rotating system
• Primary Source Types for Controlled Motion
Electric motors
Hydraulics
Pneumatics
• Primary Source Types for Tranportation / Conveyance
Electric motors
Turbines - steam or gas
Internal combustion engines

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 4

Loads

• Loads consume power from a system

Classification
• Continuous processes - efficiency is important
– pumping, compression, grinding, milling
– transportation: planes, trains, automobiles, ships
• Transient processes - efficiency typically
secondary
– engine valves, punching, printing
– robotics, web handling (cutting, slitting)
Fall 2000 Sources & Loads
 5

Load Leveling for Transient

Processes
• Many motion control Instantaneous load Area under
projects involve high transient loads, from transient device
but low average loads force/disp.
• Actuators sized by peak force/torque -
such as punch diagram is work
determines cost
• Many mechanical devices convert
stored kinetic energy (“flywheel
energy”) to instantaneous force /
torque: Average
– Cam actuated valves Force
– Cam / slider-crank punches Load
– 4-bar mechanism for printing,
punching, indexing
– Geneva mechanism
Displacement
Fall 2000 Sources & Loads
 6

Application: Hybrid Electric Bus

• Start/stop every 35 seconds on 16th st.
mall
• 120 passengers Displacement
• Current buses require
200 hp diesel engine
for peak demand Velocity
• HEV drives bus w/ DC
wheel motors Acceleration
• During braking, turn
motors into generators,
Engine Power
store energy in batteries
• Only requires 30 hp to drive generator to
make up losses
average
engine power
Fall 2000 Sources & Loads
 7

Windmill Development

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 8

Windmill
Example
Windmill
Efficiency
  Windmill
Efficiency

Windmill
Torque
  Windmill
Torque

 Pump  Generator
Torque Torque

 
Multi-bladed High Efficiency
Farm Windmill Airfoil Windmill

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 9

Electric Motors

• AC vs. DC
• Magnetic rotor vs. reluctance rotor
• Permanent magnet vs. field wound
• Steady state vs. transient
• Moving magnetic field: moving vs. stationary

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads


Types of Electric Motors
Direct Current
With brushes - stationary field
magnets, brushes supply
current to moving armature
– Permanent magnet vs.
wound field
– Series wound
– Parallel wound
– Compound wound
– Separately excited
Brushless - permanent magnets
on rotor for field, stationary
armature
– Permanent magnet
Fall 2000
10
Alternating Current
Synchronous -
– Rotor speed matches speed of magnetic
field
– Phase lag increases as load increases
– Rotor is reluctance, permanent magnet,
or receives current through slip rings
Induction
– Magnetic field rotates ­5%+ faster than
rotor, creates magnetic field in rotor
– Very robust
– Slip speed increases w/ load
Sources & Loads

Aside: the AC vs. DC Wars
Direct Current
• Thomas Edison chief
proponent
• Easy to understand
• Can’t transmit long
distances because can’t
change voltage
• Edison charged AC was
dangerous: invented the
electric chair and fried a
goat on stage to prove
 95+% of motors are DC
Fall 2000
11
Alternating Current
• Nikolai Tesla chief proponent
• Theory more difficult
• Transformers allow voltage
changes for transmission
• 1st AC power station was in
Telluride in 1891
 95+% of power consumed in
AC machines
Sources & Loads
 12

Aside: AC vs. DC for

Locomotive Traction Motors
• Modern locomotives are all electric
drive:
Diesel drives generator, motors
drive train
• Earliest electric drives were DC
generators, DC motors
• All generation now AC
• Most new motors AC for traction,
except where trains hook up to
overhead power, then DC used
• AC allows the use of solid state
speed controls; DC requires the
use of switchable taps to keep
motors in best speed range
Fall 2000 Sources & Loads
 13
AC Traction vs.
DC Traction
• Biggest issue w/ locomotive hauling capacity is
traction
• DC motors can be considered to be torque sources,
once wheels lose traction, they speed up, reducing
friction to dynamic coefficient
Traction coefficient of .35
• AC motors can be considered to be speed sources,
wheels don’t speed up if slipping starts – keeps friction
coefficient @ static level
Traction coefficient of .47
Fall 2000 Sources & Loads
 14

Ship Drives

• Diesel-electric drives used in WWII vintage submarines to

allow submerged operation on batteries
• Electric drive ships in use today due to wide disparity
between prime mover speed (turbine speeds of 3,600+
rpm) and propeller speeds (less than 100 rpm)

• German U-boat #505

• Built in 1940
• Captured in 1944
• Housed at Chicago
Museum of Science &
Industry
Fall 2000 Sources & Loads
 15

DC Motor Operation

                                                                                                                                    

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 16

AC Induction
Motor

• Simple & robust

• “Almost” constant
speed
• Must modify to use as
a generator
Fall 2000 Sources & Loads
 17

Servo vs. Stepper Motors

A stepper motor is an open loop device

– Series of pulses fed to stepper motor, stepper moves a set distance w/
each pulse
– Keep track of # of pulses to establish rotational displacement
– Steppers have some holding torque even when power is off
– Can be deceptive if rotor overshoots
– Controls primarily digital, fairly inexpensive & robust

A servo motor is a closed loop device

– Can be DC, DC permanent magnet, AC, or even variable reluctance
like stepper motor
– Uses position & velocity feedback so position & speed are known
– Requires a more expensive analog amplifer / driver

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 18

Modeling of DC Motors

 shaft  K  I   friction
Veffective Vsupply  Vemf
I 
Rarmature Rarm
Vemf  K emf  
Vsup  K emf 
 shaft  K   friction
Fall 2000
Rarm Sources & Loads
 19

Modeling of DC Motors

 Vsup  K emf  
Pmech       K   friction   
 Rarm 
Vsup  K emf  
Pelectric  Vsupply  I arm  Vsup
Rarm
 Vsup  K emf  
 K   friction   
Pout Pmech  Rarm 
motor   
Pin Pelect Vsup  K emf 
Vsup
Fall 2000
Rarm Sources & Loads
 20

Modeling of DC Motors

100%

0% 100%
Motor Speed as % of no load Sources & Loads
Fall 2000
 21

Motion Control
Position Position feedback signal
Position
Sensor
-
+ Disturbance:
position friction, etc.
error
signal
Acceleration
motor =  dt
+
+ command
Amplifier
current
Motor   =   dt

+
 = / I
velocity
Velocity error
signal

+
-
Velocity feedback signal
Velocity
Sensor
Input
Motion
Profiles
Fall 2000 Sources & Loads
 22

Example

Things we’d like to know:

• Rarm , K, Kemf , friction

Things we actually might be given:

• hp, Vsupply, Imax

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 23

Rarmature

Obtain by: Vsupply = 12 volts

– Physically locking the Iarm,stalled = 2 amps
rotor Rarm = 12V / 2A = 6
– Applying a voltage
– Measuring the current
– Rarm = Vsupply / Iarmature
when the rotor is
stalled

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 24

K

• Lock rotor with a torque stall = 140 in-oz

wrench Istall = 2 amps
• Apply Vs, measure Iarm & K = 70 in-oz/amp
• K = (stall -frict) /Iarm ,
including friction 1 oz = .278 N
1 in = .0254 m
• K = stall/Iarm , neglecting
K = 70(.278)(0.0254)
friction = .49 N•m/amp

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 25

Kemf

Remember: Kemf = K when no load = 232 rpm

expressed in fundamental units: Vs = 12 V
– Kemf in volts/(radians/second)
Kemf = 12 V / 232 rpm
– K in N•m/amp
= .052 V/rpm
• Remove all load from motor
9.54 rpm = 1 rad/s
• Apply Vs, measure speed
Kemf = .052(9.54)
•  = K(Vs-Kemf•)/Rarm - frict =.49 V/(rad/s)
• At no-load,  =0
Kemf = Vs/, neglecting friction So K = Kemf!

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 26

friction
• We neglected friction in the two Ino load = . 02A
previous slides
• frict negligible for large high- frict = . 02A(.49N•m/A)
efficiency motors, significant for = .0098 N•m
small permanent magnet motors = 1.38 in•oz
• Consists of brush & bearing
friction for low speed motors, This is about 1% of stall,
bearings & windage for high
speed motors which is typical
• Need to measure motor housing
reaction at stall to determine low-
speed frict
• Can determine frict at high speed
Fallfrom
2000 current at no-load Sources & Loads
 27

Pmax

• Remember, torque no-load = 232 rpm

decreases linearly w/ speed, Pmax = 116 rpm
speed increases linearly w/ =12.15 rad/s
speed
= Kt(Vs-Kemf•)/Rarm - f
• The product of two functions
= 70(12-.052•116)/6 -
like this will be maximum at
1.38
the midpoint
• Pmech is a max at no-load/2 = 68.3 in-oz=.482 N•m
Pmax = • 
= (.482 N•m)(12.15 rad/s)
= 5.86 watts

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads


Efficiency,  @ Pmax
• Calculate mechanical power
• Calculate electrical power
• Efficiency is the ratio of
mechanical to electrical
power
• Remember, all of the
inefficiency goes into heat
which heats up the motor
• Max. efficiency to the right
of max. power
Fall 2000
28
Pelect = Vs•Iarm
Iarm = (Vs-Kemf•)/Rarm
= (12-.052•116)/6 = .995A
Pelect = 12V • .995A = 11.9 watts
 = Pmech / Pelect
= 5.86 watts / 11.9 watts
= 49.1%
Sources & Loads
 29

Acceleration

• The acceleration of a Irotor = .001 kg•m2

motor is: max = 140 in•oz
 =  / Irotor = .989 N•m
• Max acceleration at max = .989 / .001
startup when speed is = 989 rad/s2
highest

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 30
Vsupply = 24 volts
Homework no-load = 3,000 rpm
Due 10/9/00 Istall = 5 amps
friction = .01 n-m
a) Calculate the Kemf Motor inertia = .0005 kg-m2
b) Calculate K
c) Calculate Rarm
d) Calculate the stall torque
e) Calculate the torque at point of max mechanical power
f) Calculate the maximum mechanical power
g) Calculate the motor efficiency at the max power point

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads

 Vsupply = 24 volts 31

Homework no-load = 3,000 rpm

Istall = 5 amps
Due 10/11/00 friction = .01 n-m
Motor inertia = .0005 kg-m2
a) Apply a load of 0.1 n-m Use constants from previous
problem
to the previous problem
b) Determine the approximate steady-state speed of the
system
c) Calculate the time to reach 90% of the steady-state
speed
d) Plot ,, Iarm, Pmech, & Pelect as a function of time.
Plot from t=0 to t90% (the time calculated in c above)

Fall 2000 Sources & Loads