The Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)

Internal block diagram of an op-amp

 
𝐴𝑣

• The differential amplifier is the input stage for the op-amp. It provides amplification of
the difference voltage between the two inputs.
• The second stage is usually a class A amplifier that provides additional gain. Some op-
amps may have more than one voltage amplifier stage.
• A push-pull class B amplifier is typically used for the output stage.
Differential mode

Vout = difference of the polarity

2 opposite polarity signals are out of phase

Common-mode

Signal source connecting

Double-ended differential mode 2 inputs

Signal are at the same phase

Common-mode rejection
Common-mode signals = noise Vout = 0
Signal cancels each other

Signal source connecting

Double-ended differential mode
2 inputs

Signal are at the same phase

Common-mode ratio (CMRR)
Parameter to noise signal is canceled out and DO NOT
APPEAR at Vout.
The higher the value, the better.
The higher the value, the better.
 
𝐴 𝑜𝑙
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = Open-loop gain, Aol is HIGH
𝐴 𝑐𝑚
Common-mode gain, Acm is LOW
In decibels:
 
𝐴 𝑜𝑙
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =20 log ⁡( )
𝐴 𝑐𝑚
Open loop gain can range up to 200,000 (160 dB)
Common-mode ratio (CMRR)
Parameter to noise signal is canceled out and DO NOT
APPEAR at Vout.
The higher the value, the better.
e.g.: A CMRR of 100,000, means that the
desired input signal (differential) is
 
𝐴 𝑜𝑙 amplified 100,000 times more than the
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = unwanted noise (common-mode).
𝐴 𝑐𝑚 If differential input signal = common-mode
(noise)
The desired signal will appear on the output
In decibels: 100,000 times greater in amplitude than
 
𝐴 𝑜𝑙 the noise.
Thus, the noise or interference has been
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =20 log ⁡( ) essentially eliminated.
𝐴 𝑐𝑚
e.g.: Aol = 100,000 and Acm = 0.2
 
𝐴 𝑜𝑙
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴 𝑐𝑚

In decibels:
 
𝐴 𝑜𝑙
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =20 log ⁡( )
𝐴 𝑐𝑚
Op-amp input impedance
The average of the two op-amp input currents
Input Biased Current
The average of the two op-amp input currents

 
𝐼 1 + 𝐼2
𝐼 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠 =
2
Input Offset Current
Ideally biased currents are EQUAL; thus differences = 0
However, in practical models currents are not equal.
 difference of Input Biased Currents
 
𝐼 𝑂𝑆 =|𝐼 1 − 𝐼 2|
Effect of input offset current

 
𝑉 𝑂𝑆 = 𝐼 1 𝑅𝑖𝑛 − 𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑖𝑛 =( 𝐼 1 − 𝐼 2 ) 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼 𝑂𝑆 𝑅𝑖𝑛

 
𝑉 𝑂𝑢𝑡 (𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 )= 𝐴 𝑣 𝐼 𝑂𝑆 𝑅 𝑖𝑛
gain
Negative Feedback (closed loop)
Noninverting Amplifier
Therefore the close-loop g
  𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 1 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑐𝑙 (𝑁𝐼 ) = ≅ =
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑅𝑖
  𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑓=
(
𝑅 𝑖+ 𝑅 𝑓)𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜𝑙 ( 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉 𝑓 )= 𝐴 𝑜𝑙 ( 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐵𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 )

 

attenuation   𝑅𝑖
𝐵=
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅 𝑓
 Output Impedance
 𝑍 =( 1+ 𝐴 𝑜𝑙 𝐵 ) 𝑍 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ( 𝑁𝐼 )
𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜𝑙 𝑉 𝑑 − 𝑍 𝑑 𝐼 𝑜𝑢𝑡

 

 𝐼 𝑍 𝑖𝑛 =𝑉 𝑑
𝑖𝑛
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ≅ 𝐴 𝑜𝑙 ( 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 −𝑉 𝑓 )
 

𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ≅ 𝐴 𝑜𝑙 ( 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐵 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
 

  𝑉 𝑖𝑛
𝑍 𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑁𝐼 )= =( 1+ 𝐴𝑜𝑙 𝐵 ) 𝑍 𝑖𝑛
𝐼 𝑖𝑛
 
Inverting Amplifier   − 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑓 =
𝑅𝑓
  𝑉 𝑖𝑛
𝐼 𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝑖
 𝐼 𝑓 =𝐼 𝑖𝑛

  𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑓
=− = 𝐴 𝑐𝑙 (𝐼)
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖