COMPUTER

ORGANIZATION AND
ARCHITECTURE CHAPTER 1B
Von Neumann Architecture and
Fundamental Building Block
 Basic Organization of
Von Neumann Machine
 The Von Neumann Architecture
THE PRINCIPLES :
 Data and instructions are both stored in the main
memory.
 The content of the memory is addressable by
location.
 Instructions are executed sequentially, unless the
order is explicitly modified.

 The “Stored Program Concept” – Storage of

instructions in computer memory to enable it to
perform variety of tasks in sequence or
intermittently (Encyclopedia Britannica).
 The Von Neumann Architecture

THE ARCHITECTURE :
 A central processing unit (CPU); it contains the
control unit (CU), that coordinates the execution
of instructions and the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU),
which performs arithmetic and logic operations.
 Main memory.
 Von Neumann computers are general purpose
computers. They can solve very different
problems depending on the program they got to
execute.
The Von Neumann Architecture

The Architecture

The General-purpose (von Neumann) Architecture

 The Von Neumann Architecture
In the von Neumann architecture, a small set of circuits can be
driven to perform very different tasks, depending on the software
program, which is executed.

 The primary function of a CPU is to execute the instructions

fetch from the main memory.
 An instruction tells the CPU to perform one of its basic
operations.
 The CU is the one which interprets the instruction to be
executed and which ‘tells’ the different other components of
what to do.
 The CPU includes a set of registers, which are temporary
storage devices typically used to hold intensively used data
and intermediate result.
 Von Neumann Architecture:
Input Unit

 Input unit accepts coded information from human

operators through electromechanical devices such as
the keyboard or from other computers over digital
communication lines.
 The information received is either stored in the
memory for later reference or immediately used by
the Arithmetic and Logic circuitry to perform the
desired operation.
 Finally the result is sent back to the outside through
the output unit.
 Von Neumann Architecture:
Input Unit

 The keyboard is wired so that whenever a key is

pressed, the corresponding letter or digit is
automatically translated into its corresponding code
and sent directly to either the memory or the
processor.
 Other kinds of input devices: Joy stick, track ball,
mouse (pointing devices), scanner etc.
 Von Neumann Architecture:
Memory Unit
 The memory unit stores program and data.
 Primary memory (Main memory)
 Contains a large number of semiconductor
cells each capable of storing one bit of
information
 These cells are processed in group of fixed
size called words containing ‘n’ bits. The main
memory is organized such that the contents of
one word can be stored or retrieved in one
basic operation.
 For accessing data, a distinct address is
associated with each word location
 Von Neumann Architecture:
Memory Unit
 Data and programs must be in the primary
memory for execution.
 Number of bits in each word is called the word
length and it may vary from 16 to 64 bits.
 Fast memory
 Expensive
 Time required to access one word is called
Memory Access Time - 10nS to 100nS. This time
is fixed and independent of the location.
 E.g. Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Von Neumann Architecture:
Memory Unit
 Secondary storage
 They are used when large amount of data have to
be stored (also when frequent access is not
necessary)
 E.g. Hard Disk, Compact Disk, Floppy Disk,
Magnetic Tapes etc.
 Von Neumann Architecture:
Processor Unit

 The heart of the computer system is the Processor

unit.
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
 Most computer operations (Arithmetical and logical) are
executed in ALU of the processor.
 For example: Suppose two numbers (operands) located in
the main memory are to be added. These operands are
brought into arithmetic unit – actual addition is carried. The
result is then stored in the memory or retained in the
processor itself for immediate use.
 Von Neumann Architecture:
Processor Unit

 Note that all operands may not reside in the main

memory. Processor contains a number of high speed
storage elements called Registers, which may be
used for temporary storage of frequently used
operands.
 Each register can store one word of data.
 Access times to registers are 5 to 10 times faster
than access time to memory.
 Von Neumann Architecture:
Processor Unit
 Control Unit
 The operations of all the units are coordinated by
the control unit (act as the nerve centre that
sends control signal to other units)
 Timing signal that governs the I/O transfers are
generated by the Control Unit.
 Synchronization signals are also generated by the
Control Unit
 By selecting, interpreting and executing the
program instructions,the control unit is able to
maintain order and direct the operation of the
entire system.
 Von Neumann Architecture:
Processor Unit

 The control unit and ALU’s are usually many times

faster than other devices connected to a computer
system.
 This enabled a single processor to control a number
of external devices such as video terminals, magnetic
taped, disk memories, sensors, displays and
mechanical controllers which are much slower than
the processor
 Von Neumann Architecture:
Output Unit
• Output devices accept binary data from the computer
-decodes it into original form and supplies this result
to the outside world.
• E.g. Printer, Video terminals (provides both input &
output functions), graphic displays, etc
Fundamental Building Blocks of a
Computer
 Counter
 A counter is a device which stores/displays the
number of times a particular event/process has
occurred.
 There are many types of counters. 2 types of
counters are commonly used:
 Up counters – increment in value
 Down counter – decrement in value
 Counter circuits count in natural binary. Many types
of counter circuits are available as digital building
blocks.
 Registers

 Registers are single, permanent storage location

within a CPU used for a particular or defined
purpose.
 It holds binary values temporarily either for
storage, manipulation or calculation purposes.
Registers are directly manipulated by the Control
Unit (CU) during execution of instructions.
 Programmable Logic Array (PLA)

 PLAs are general purpose logic devices that have

the ability to perform a wide variety of specialized
logic functions. A PLA contains a general purpose
AND-OR-NOT array of logic gate circuits.
 The inputs to the AND gates in the array can be
interconnected to perform a logic function. The
process of connecting/disconnecting the inputs is
known as programming.
PLA circuit diagram
 Register Transfer Notation

 The operations executed on data stored in registers are

called microoperations.
 A microoperation is an elementary operation performed
on the information stored in registers. For example shift,
count, clear, and load.
 To specify the sequence of microoperations, symbols
are used. This symbolic notation is called a Register
Transfer Notation (RTN).
 Register Transfer Notation is a way of specifying the
behavior of a digital synchronous circuit.
 Register Transfer Notation

• Example:
• RTN: MAR IR
means
“The value from Instruction Register (IR) is copied
into the Memory Address Register (MAR)”