Reverse of a Regular Language

1
Theorem:
R
The reverse L of a regular language L
is a regular language

Proof idea:
R
Construct NFA that accepts L :

invert the transitions of the NFA

that accepts L
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 Proof
Since L is regular,
there is NFA that accepts L

Example:
b
L  ab * ba
a
b
a
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Invert Transitions

a
b
a
4
Make old initial state a final state

a
b
a
5
Add a new initial state

a 
b 
a
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Resulting machine accepts R
L

R is regular
L
L  ab * ba
b R
L  b * a  ab
a 
b 
a
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Grammars

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 Grammars
Grammars express languages

Example: the English language

sentence  noun _ phrase predicate

noun _ phrase  article noun

predicate  verb 9
article  a
article  the

noun  boy
noun  dog

verb  runs
verb  walks 10
A derivation of “the boy walks”:

sentence  noun _ phrase predicate

 noun _ phrase verb
 article noun verb
 the noun verb
 the boy verb
 the boy walks
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A derivation of “a dog runs”:

sentence  noun _ phrase predicate

 noun _ phrase verb
 article noun verb
 a noun verb
 a dog verb
 a dog runs
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Language of the grammar:

L = { “a boy runs”,
“a boy walks”,
“the boy runs”,
“the boy walks”,
“a dog runs”,
“a dog walks”,
“the dog runs”,
“the dog walks” }
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 Notation

noun  boy
noun  dog

Variable Terminal
Production
or
rule
Non-terminal

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 Another Example
Grammar: S  aSb
S 

Derivation of sentence ab :

S  aSb  ab

S  aSb S 
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Grammar: S  aSb
S 

Derivation of sentence aabb :

S  aSb  aaSbb  aabb

S  aSb S 
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Other derivations:

S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb  aaabbb

S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb

 aaaaSbbbb  aaaabbbb

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Language of the grammar

S  aSb
S 

n n
L  {a b : n  0}

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 More Notation

Grammar G   V ,T , S , P 
V : Set of variables

T : Set of terminal symbols

S : Start variable

P: Set of Production rules

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 Example

Grammar G: S  aSb
S 

G   V ,T , S , P 

V  {S } T  {a, b}
P  {S  aSb, S  }
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 More Notation
Sentential Form:
A sentence that contains
variables and terminals

Example:

S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb  aaabbb

Sentential Forms sentence

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 *
We write: S  aaabbb

Instead of:

S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb  aaabbb

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 *
In general we write: w1  wn

If: w1  w2  w3    wn

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 *
By default: w  w

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 Example
Grammar Derivations
S  aSb *
S 
S 
*
S  ab
*
S  aabb
*
S  aaabbb
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 Example
Grammar Derivations
S  aSb 
S  aaSbb
S 

aaSbb  aaaaaSbbbbb

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 Another Grammar Example
Grammar G : S  Ab
A  aAb
A

Derivations:
S  Ab  b
S  Ab  aAbb  abb
S  aAbb  aaAbbb  aabbb
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 More Derivations
S  Ab  aAbb  aaAbbb  aaaAbbbb
 aaaaAbbbbb  aaaabbbbb


S  aaaabbbbb

S  aaaaaabbbbbbb

n n
S a b b
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 Language of a Grammar

For a grammar G
with start variable S:


L(G )  {w : S  w}

String of terminals
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 Example
For grammar G: S  Ab
A  aAb
A

n n
L(G )  {a b b : n  0}


n n
Since: S a b b
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 A Convenient Notation

A  aAb
A  aAb | 
A

article  a
article  a | the
article  the
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Linear Grammars

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 Linear Grammars
Grammars with
at most one variable at the right side
of a production

Examples: S  aSb S  Ab
S  A  aAb
A
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 A Non-Linear Grammar

Grammar G: S  SS
S 
S  aSb
S  bSa

L(G )  {w : na ( w)  nb ( w)}

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 Another Linear Grammar

Grammar G : SA
A  aB | 
B  Ab

n n
L(G )  {a b : n  0}

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 Right-Linear Grammars
All productions have form: A  xB
or
A x

Example: S  abS
S a

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 Left-Linear Grammars
All productions have form: A  Bx
or
A x

Example: S  Aab
A  Aab | B
Ba
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Regular Grammars

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 Regular Grammars
A regular grammar is any
right-linear or left-linear grammar

Examples:
G1 G2
S  abS S  Aab
S a A  Aab | B
Ba
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 Observation
Regular grammars generate regular languages

Examples: G2
G1 S  Aab
S  abS A  Aab | B
S a Ba

L(G1 )  (ab) * a L(G2 )  aab(ab) *

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Regular Grammars
Generate
Regular Languages

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 Theorem

Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
 Regular
Languages

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 Theorem - Part 1

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular grammar generates

a regular language

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 Theorem - Part 2

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular language is generated

by a regular grammar

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 Proof – Part 1

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

The language L(G ) generated by

any regular grammar G is regular

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 The case of Right-Linear Grammars

Let G be a right-linear grammar

We will prove: L(G ) is regular

Proof idea: We will construct NFA M

with L( M )  L(G )
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Grammar G is right-linear

Example: S  aA | B
A  aa B
Bb B|a

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Construct NFA M such that
every state is a grammar variable:

A
S special
VF
final state
B
S  aA | B
A  aa B
Bb B|a 48
Add edges for each production:

a A
S VF
B

S  aA
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 a A
S VF

B

S  aA | B
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 A
a a

S a VF

B
S  aA | B
A  aa B
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 A
a a

S a VF

B
S  aA | B
b
A  aa B
B  bB 52
 A
a a

S a VF
 a
B
S  aA | B
b
A  aa B
B  bB | a 53
 A
a a

S a VF
 a
B

S  aA  aaaB  aaabB  aaaba

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 NFA M Grammar
A G
a S  aA | B
a
A  aa B
S a B  bB | a
 VF
a
B
L( M )  L(G ) 
b
aaab * a  b * a
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 In General
A right-linear grammar G

has variables: V0 ,V1,V2 ,

and productions: Vi  a1a2 amV j

or

Vi  a1a2 am
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We construct the NFA M such that:

each variable Vi corresponds to a node:

V1 V3
V0
VF
V2 special
V4
final state 57
For each production: Vi  a1a2 amV j

we add transitions and intermediate nodes

Vi a1 a2 ………
am V
j

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For each production: Vi  a1a2 am

we add transitions and intermediate nodes

Vi a1 a2 ………
am
VF

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Resulting NFA M looks like this:
a9

a2 a4
a1 V1 V3
a3 a5
V0
a3 a4
VF
a8 a9
V2 a5
V4

It holds that: L(G )  L( M ) 60

 The case of Left-Linear Grammars

Let G be a left-linear grammar

We will prove: L(G ) is regular

Proof idea:
We will construct a right-linear
 R
grammar G with L(G )  L(G)
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Since G is left-linear grammar
the productions look like:

A  Ba1a2 ak

A  a1a2  ak

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Construct right-linear grammar G
In G: A  Ba1a2  ak
A  vB

In G : A  ak  a2a1B
R
Av B
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Construct right-linear grammar G
In G: A  a1a2  ak
Av

In G : A  ak a2a1
R
Av
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 R
It is easy to see that: L(G )  L(G)

Since G is right-linear, we have:

R
L(G) L(G) L(G )
Regular Regular Regular
Language Language Language

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 Proof - Part 2

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular language L is generated

by some regular grammar G

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Any regular language L is generated
by some regular grammar G

Proof idea:
Let M be the NFA with L  L(M ).

Construct from M a regular grammar G

such that L( M )  L(G )
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Since L is regular
there is an NFA M such that L  L(M )
b
Example:
M a
a
q0 q1 q2

 b
L  ab * ab(b * ab) * q3
L  L(M ) 68
Convert M to a right-linear grammar
b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2

q0  aq1  b
q3

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 b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0  aq1
 b
q1  bq1 q3
q1  aq2

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 b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0  aq1
q1  bq1  b

q1  aq2 q3

q2  bq3

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 L(G )  L( M )  L
G b

q0  aq1 M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q1  bq1
q1  aq2  b

q2  bq3 q3

q3  q1
q3  
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 In General
a
For any transition: q p

Add production: q  ap

variable terminal variable

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For any final state: qf

Add production: qf 

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Since G is right-linear grammar

G is also a regular grammar

with L(G )  L( M )  L

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