Definition :

Coal is a combustible fossil fuel sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and
hydrocarbons.

Advantage of Coal :
Easily combustible, produces high energy upon combustion helping in the
generation of electricity Widely and easily distributed all over the world.

Comparatively inexpensive due to large reserves and easy accessibility

Very large amounts of electricity can be generated in one place using coal, fairly
cheaply.

Good availability

It is relatively easy to transport. The oil and gas transportation needs to setup
high-pressure pipelines and back them with necessary security cover.

Most of the coal mining regions are well connected to the industrial belts by a rail
network, which is again the one of the cheapest mode of transportation available.
Disadvantages of Coal
1.it is Nonrenewable and fast depleting.
2.One of the biggest disadvantage of coal is air pollution. Numerous
harmful gases, including carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide and ash, are
released. In fact, it tends to emit twice as much CO 2 than the other
fossil fuels.
3.Coal storage cost is high especially if required to have enough
stock for few years to assure power production availability.
4.Coal power puts the lives of the people who dig the coal in danger,
and it gives them poor lung quality.
Coal-fired power plants emit mercury, selenium, and arsenic which
are harmful to human health and the environment
5.A coal plant generates about 3,700,000 tons of carbon dioxide
every year, this is one of the main causes of global warming.
6.A single coal plant creates 10,000 tons of sulfur dioxide, which
causes acid rain that damages forests, lakes, and buildings.
Energy Content in Coal
1.The basic function of the power plant is to convert energy in coal
to electricity.
2.Therefore, the first thing we should know is how much energy
there is in coal.
3.Energy content of coal is given in terms of KiloJoules (kJ) per
Kilogram (kg) of coal as the Gross calorific value(GCV) or the
Higher Heating value (HHV) of coal.
4.This value can vary from 10500 kJ/kg to 25000 kJ/kg depending
on the quality and type of the coal.
5.You should have an idea of the type of coal, or the source or
mine from where the plant gets the coal.

6.Published data about the sources, mines, regions or the

procurement data gives an idea about the HHV of coal. For this
example we use a HHV of 20,000 kJ/kg.
Calorific Value or Heating Value
This is the most important parameter that determines the economics of the
power plant operation.

It indicates the amount of heat that is released when the coal is burned.
The Calorific Value varies on the geographical age, formation, ranking and
location of the coal mines.
 It is expressed as kJ/kg in the SI unit system.
 Power plant coals have a Calorific Value in the range of 9500 kJ/kg to 27000
kJ/ kg.
When coal burns the moisture in coal evaporates taking away some heat of
combustion which is not available for our use.

The calorific value is expressed in two different ways on account the moisture
in the coal
1. Gross Calorific Value or Higher Heating Value it is the total heat released
when burning the coal.
2. Net Calorific Value or Lower Heating Value it is the heat energy available
after reducing the loss due to moisture.
The Heating Value determines how much fuel is required in the power plant.
CV of Coal analyzed in three ways

1. As Received’ coal, is the coal received in the power plant premises.

The payment to the coal companies are normally made based on the

‘As Received’ coal properties.

2. As Fired’ coal is the coal entering the boiler system. The
performance of the boiler and power plant is based on the ‘As Fired’
coal properties.
3. Air Dried’ coal is what is used in the laboratory for analysis. This
coal is dried in atmosphere and has the lowest amount of moisture.
Laboratory results are reported as ‘Air Dried’ coal properties.
The difference between the above three conditions is the proportion
of the Moisture.

The Calorific Value and other coal constituents analyzed in the

laboratory on ‘Air Dried’ basis is converted to ‘As received’ or ‘As
Heat Rate

1. Heat rate is the heat input required to produce one unit of

electricity. (1 kw hr)

2. One Kw is 3600 kJ/hr. If the energy conversion is 100 % efficient

then to produce one unit of electricity we require 3600 kJ.
3. After considering the conversion efficiency in a power plant we
require an heat input of (3600 / 33.44% ) 10765 kJ/ kw hr.
 Types of Coal

• there are five different types or ranking levels of coal, each with
differences in energy output as a result of increased
pressurization, heat, and time.

 Peat

 Lignite

 Sub bituminous coal

 Bituminous coal

 Anthracite
Peat
•It is initial stage of Coal formation.

•A soft brown mass of compressed, partially decomposed vegetation

that forms in a water-saturated environment and has a carbon
content of .
•Dried peat can be burned as fuel
Lignite
1.Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is brownish-black in color.

2.It has a carbon contents of around 25-35%, a high inherent moisture

content sometimes as high as 66%, and an ash content ranging from 6% to
19%.

3.It is considered an “immature” coal that is still soft.

4.The energy content of lignite ranges from 10 to 20 MJ/kg on a moist,

mineral-matter-free basis.

5.Lignite has a high content of volatile matter which makes it easier to

convert into gas and liquid petroleum products than higher ranking coals.

6.It is used for generating electricity.

7.Its high moisture content and susceptibility to spontaneous combustion can

cause problems in transportation and storage.
Lignite
Sub bituminous coal
•This is a dull black coal with a higher heating value than lignite, and
is used principally for electricity and space heating.
•It has 35-45 percent carbon contents.

•The heat content of sub-bituminous coals range from 19,306 to

26,749 kJ/kg.
•used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation.
Bituminous coal
•Bituminous Coal or Black Coal is of higher quality than lignite coal
but of poorer quality than anthracite coal.
•The carbon content of bituminous coal is around 60-80%; the rest is
composed of water, air, hydrogen, and sulfur.
•The heat content of bituminous coal ranges from (24 to 35 MJ/kg) on
a moist, mineral-matter-free basis.
•Bituminous coal is used primarily to generate electricity and make
coke for the steel industry.
Anthracite
•Also known as "hard coal" that was formed from bituminous coal
under increased.
•It is very hard and shiny. This type of coal is the most compact and
therefore, has the highest energy content of the five levels of coal. It
is used for space heating and generating electricity. Anthracite is coal
has the highest carbon contents, between 86 and 98 percent
•The heat content of anthracite ranges from 26 to 33 MJ/kg on a
moist, mineral-matter-free basis.
 Proximate Analysis:
Indicates the contents in the fuels in percentage by weight.

 Moisture
 Volatile material
 Fixed carbon
 Ash
 Moisture Content:
Water expelled from the fuel by specified methods without causing any
chemical change to fuel.
1 g of fine powdered air dried coal is weighed in crucible. Crucible is
placed inside oven & Temperature is maintained at 105 to 110 ◦ C for 1
hour. Then sample is taken out & weighed.
Loss in weight is the moisture content in the fuel.

Loss in weight
Percentage of moisture = ------------------------ x 100
Wt. of coal taken
Moisture in coal evaporates during burning taking Latent heat of
evaporation, hence moisture lowers the calorific value of fuel.

“Lesser the moisture content, better the quality of coal as a fuel”

 Volatile Matter:
Dried sample from the crucible is covered with a lid & placed
in an electric furnace.
Temperature is maintained at 925◦ C + 25◦ C for 7 minute. Then cooled
first in air, then in a desiccator & weighed again. Loss in weight is
reported as volatile matter present in coal.

Loss in weight due to removal of volatile matter

Volatile material = ------------------------------------------------------------- x
100
Wt. of coal sample taken

High volatile matter content means that high proportion of fuel

will distill over as gas or vapour, a large proportion of which escapes as
unburnt. It will burns with long flame, high smoke and has low calorific
 Ash:
Residual coal in crucible is heated without a lid in a muffle furnace at
750 to 800◦ C
for one hour. Then cooled first in air and next in desiccator. Then
weighed and the ash content is reported.

Wt. of Ash left

Percentage of Ash = ---------------------- x 100
Wt. of coal taken

Ash is a useless, non-combustible matter and it reduces the calorific

value of coal.
Ash also causes hindrance to flow of air and heat, thereby lowering the
temperature.
Fixed carbon
Percentage of Fixed carbon = 100 - % of ( moisture + Volatile matter +
Ash )

“Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, greater is its calorific and better
the quality of coal.”
 Ultimate Analysis:
Gives the Elementary composition of

 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen
 Sulphur in percentage by Weight
 Determination of Carbon & Hydrogen:

1.1 g of coal is burnt in current of oxygen in a combustion apparatus.

2.C & H are converted into CO2 and H2O.

3.Gaseous products are absorbed in KOH & CaCl2 of known weights.

4.Increases in weights are determined.

Carbon:

Increase in weight of KOH tube * 12

% of C = ------------------------------------------------------- x 100
Weight of coal sample taken * 44
Hydrogen

Increase in weight of CaCl2 tube * 2

% of H = ---------------------------------------------------- x 100
Weight of coal sample taken * 18

“Greater the percentage of Carbon and Hydrogen, better is the coal in

quality and calorific value”.
 Determination of Nitrogen:
1. 1g of powdered coal is heated with conc. H2SO4 with K2SO4 as
catalyst in a Kjeldal flask.
2. After solution becomes clear, treated with excess KOH.
3. NH3 is liberated & absorbed in known volume of standard acid
solution.
4. Unused acid is determined with NaOH.
5. From the volume of the acid used by NH3 liberated % of N in coal is
determined.

Volume of acid used x Normality x 1.4

% of N = ------------------------------------------------------
Weight of coal taken

“Nitrogen has no influence in the calorific value. A good quality coal should
Determination of Sulphur content:

From washings of bomb in bomb calorimeter, Sulphur is converted into into

sulphate.

S + 2H +2O2  H2SO4

H2SO4 + BaCl2  BaSO4 + 2HCl

Weight of BaSO4 obtained *32

% of S = ------------------------------------------------------------------ x 100
233 * weight of coal sample taken in bomb calorimeter
Determination of Oxygen:

It is determined from the difference.

% of O = 100 – percentage of ( H + S + N + Ash ).

Oxygen content decreases the Calorific value of coal
Oxygen is in combined form with Hydrogen, thus hydrogen available for
combustion is lesser than actual.

“Good quality coal should have low percentage of Oxygen”

 Reporting:
Fuels are Heterogeneous in Nature so it is essential to
report all the data analytically.

Basis of reporting
•Run-of-mine ( ROM ).
•As-received.
•Air dried.
•Dry.
•Dry and ash free ( d.a.f ).
•Dry and mineral matter free ( d.m.m.f ).
•Moist mineral matter free or simply mineral free.