Radiation safety and Radiography: Intro

Beginning of the Nuclear Age

O Antoine Becquerel placed some salt that contained uranium on a photographic plate that was
wrapped in black paper. When he developed the photographic plate, he found to his surprise
that he had the image of the pile of salt. The uranium salt had taken a picture of itself!
Becquerel concluded that the uranium was giving off some type of penetrating rays, and that
these rays must be very strong to be able to pass through the black paper and expose the
photographic plate. However, when he placed a thick barrier of lead between the salt and the
photographic plate, the lead absorbed the rays. Becquerel realized that these penetrating rays
were probably Roentgen's x rays.
O At the same time there was in Paris a young Polish chemist, Marie Curie, who, with her
husband Pierre, was working in the laboratories at the Sorbonne. The Curies became
interested in Becquerel's problem. It was, in fact, Marie Curie who defined the ability of a
substance to produce penetrating rays as Radioactivity. The Curies found that a radioactive
substance seems to keep on and on, year after year, emitting these powerful penetrating rays.
O In 1898, they discovered that the element thorium is radioactive, and so is polonium. And so,
most of all, is radium.
O Although early experimenters first thought that radioactive materials produced only x rays,
they soon discovered that the situation was more complex. For example, when they allowed
the radiation produced by uranium to pass through a magnetic field, they could detect three
types of radiation.
O The English physicist Lord Rutherford called these three types of radiation alpha rays, beta
rays, and gamma rays, from the first three letters of the Greek alphabet.
Radiation and Inspection
• Radioactive materials are used to inspect metal and non-metal parts and the
integrity of welds across a range of industries. Industrial gamma radiography exploits
the ability of various types of radiation to penetrate materials to different extents.
Gamma radiography works in much the same way as X-rays screen luggage at
airports. Instead of the bulky machine needed to produce X-rays, all that is needed
to produce effective gamma rays is a small pellet of radioactive material in a sealed
capsule.
• The capsule is placed on one side of the object being screened, and some
photographic film is placed on the other side. The gamma rays, like X-rays, pass
through the object and create an image on the film. Just as X-rays show a break in a
bone, gamma rays show flaws in metal castings or welded joints. The technique
allows critical components to be inspected for internal defects without damage.
• X-ray sets can be used when electric power is available and the object to be scanned
can be taken to the X-ray source (or tube taken to the object) and radiographed.
Radioisotopes have the advantage that they can be taken to the site when an
examination is required – and no power is needed. However, they cannot be simply
turned off, and so must be properly shielded both when in use and at other times.
The process of gamma radiography, a type of non-destructive testing (NDT), is used to
validate the integrity of poured concrete and welds on fluid vessels, pipelines, or
critical structural elements. The unique characteristics of gamma radiography have
resulted in the technique becoming a crucial tool throughout many industries. For
example, to inspect new oil or gas pipelines, special film is taped over the weld around
the outside of the pipe. A machine called a 'pipe crawler' carries a shielded radioactive
source down the inside of the pipe to the position of the weld. There, the radioactive
source is remotely exposed and a radiographic image of the weld is produced on the
film. This film is later developed and examined for signs of flaws in the weld.
Gamma radiography has found use outside of core industrial applications, with the
technique successfully employed following the devastating earthquake in Nepal in April
2015. NDT was used to test the integrity of critical buildings such as schools and
hospitals, as well as historical attractions. Both Japan and Malaysia have since backed
an IAEA initiative to use NDT for the inspection of civil structures more widely following
natural disasters.

Neutron radiography is an NDT technique similar to that of X-ray and gamma ray.
Neutrons from a research reactor can interact with atoms in a sample causing the
emission of gamma rays which, when analyzed for characteristic energies and intensity,
will identify the types and quantities of elements present.
Gauges: Gauges containing radioactive (usually gamma) sources are in wide use in all
industries where levels of gases, liquids, and solids must be checked. 
The IAEA estimates that several hundred thousand such gauges are operating in indust
ry worldwide
. They measure the amount of radiation from a source which has been absorbed in
materials. These gauges are most useful where heat, pressure, or corrosive
substances, such as molten glass or molten metal, make it impossible or difficult to
use direct contact gauges.

Radioisotope instruments have three advantages:

• Measurements can be made without physical contact to the material or product
being examined, increasing the envelope of operating environments and
decreasing inspection time.
• Very little maintenance of the isotope source is necessary.
• The cost/benefit ratio is excellent – many instruments pay for themselves within a
few months through the time savings they facilitate.
• The ability to use radioisotopes to accurately measure thickness is widely used in the
production of sheet materials, including metal, textiles, paper, plastics, and others. Density
gauges are used where automatic control of a liquid, powder, or solid is important, for example
as in detergent manufacture.
• There are two broad types of nucleonic gauges used in industry: fixed and portable. Fixed
gauges are typically used in production facilities – mines, mills, oil and gas platforms – as a
means of controlling and monitoring quality from a production process. For example, in the
North Sea, fixed nucleonic gauges are sometimes deployed to determine conditions within
separator vessels and to monitor residual oil content within separated gas streams.
• Nucleonic gauges are also used in the coal industry. The height of the coal in a hopper can be
determined by placing high energy gamma sources at various heights along one side with
focusing collimators directing beams across the load. Detectors placed opposite the sources
register the breaking of the beam and hence the level of coal in the hopper.
• Some machines which manufacture plastic film (and paper) use radioisotope gauging with beta
particles to measure the thickness of the plastic film.
• When the intensity of radiation from a radioisotope is being reduced by matter in the beam,
some radiation is scattered back towards the radiation source. The amount of 'backscattered'
radiation is related to the amount of material in the beam, and this can be used to measure
characteristics of the material. This principle is used to measure different types of coating
thicknesses.
• Portable gauges have applications in agriculture, construction, and civil engineering. For
example, portable gauges may be used to determine the degree of soil compaction on
agricultural land, or the density of asphalt in paving mix for a road surface
World Nuclear Organization reporting of 2016. SOME INTERESTING INFORMATION and something close to
home-Bruce power.
NORM -Naturally originating radioative material (through our processing- mining, coal generation, building
materials, fertilizers, oil and gas production), not artificially man induced by fission or fusion reaction but by
activities in which radiaoactive by-product material is produced.
• The largest NORM waste stream is coal ash, with 280 million tonnes arising globally each year, and
carrying U-238 and all its non-gaseous decay products, as well as Th-232 and its progeny. This is usually
just buried. However, the double standard means that the same radionuclide, at the same
concentration, can either be sent to deep disposal or released for use in building materials, depending
on where it comes from. The 0.3 mSv/yr dose limit is still only one tenth of most natural background
levels, and two orders of magnitude lower than those experienced naturally by many people, who suffer
no apparent ill effects.
• The main radionuclide in scrap from the oil and gas industry is radium-226, with a half-life of 1600 years
as it decays to radon. Those in nuclear industry scrap are cobalt-60 and caesium-137, with much shorter
half-lives. Application of a 0.3 mSv/yr dose limit results in a clearance level for Ra-226 of 500 Bq/kg for
oil/gas scrap, compared with 10 Bq/kg for nuclear material.
• In 2011, 16 decommissioned steam generators from Bruce Power in Canada were to be shipped to
Sweden for recycling. Although the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC) approved Bruce
Power’s plans in 2011 and confirmed steam generator processing is an excellent example of responsible
and safe nuclear waste management practices, this caused public controversy at the time, and following
the Fukushima nuclear accident plans for this shipment were shelved. These steam generators were
each 12m long and 2.5m diameter, with mass 100 t, and contained some 4g of radionuclides with about
340 GBq of activity. Exposure was 0.08 mSv/hr at one metre. They were classified as low-level waste
(LLW). Studsvik in Sweden would recycle much of the metal and return about 10% of the overall volume
as LLW for disposal in Ontario.
Review: History of Radiation Protection
• 1895 X-rays were discovered by Roentgen
• ~ same time Becquerel discovered natural radioactivity of
uranium salt.
• Curies discover radium.
• For his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity Becquerel was
awarded half of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903, the other
half being given to Pierre and Marie Curie for their study of
the Becquerel radiation.
• About 4 years later, first warning of possible adverse effects
came from Tesla, Edison and Morton
• 1907 Attempt to record dose- Wagner
Fundamental Properties of
Matter
Week 1

Radiography 1
By the end of this slides, you will be able to:
• Name the main parts of an atom
• Define and distinguish between radioactive
and stable isotopes
• List isotopes used in industrial gamma
radiography
 Atomic Structure Definitions

A substance is any material that has a definite constant composition. It may be

either an element or a compound.

An element is any substance composed entirely of the same chemically identical

atoms.

A compound is a complex substance formed by the chemical union of two or

more elements in definite proportions.

A molecule is the smallest sub-division of a substance which still has the physical

properties of that substance.

 Modern Atomic Theory
• Elements are composed of atoms, which are
extremely small. 
• All atoms of a given element have the same chemical
properties and contain the same number of protons.
• Compounds are formed by the chemical combination
of two or more different kinds of atoms (whole
numbers only).
• Atoms are the units of chemical change.

Radiography 1
Atomic Structure
Bohr Model of Atom Max Number of
Neutron – mass 1 , neutral electrons in each
Proton- mass 1, positive electrical charge valence shell is 2
Electron- mass 0 (1/1840), negative n(squared). N=
electrical charge valence shell number
Atom=N+Pr+El from closest K=1,
L=2…outward. Closest
#Electrons= #Protons valence shells filled
first.
Atomic # (Z)= #Protons

Atomic mass (weight) unit (A)

A=#Neutrons + #Protons

Valence shell -orbital ring- 2 (K) closet to

nucleus, 8 (L), 18 (M), 32 (N), 50 (0).
To give an idea of space and size within a
atom –the area from the nucleus to a
valence shell is approximately 10,000
times the nucleus. Radiography 1
 2(n2)= # of electrons
in shell.
n= shell 1,2……

Electron Shell Configuration of Atoms

 All Atoms Contain Energy
• Binding Energy
– Attraction between nuclei and electrons
– Energy greatest near nucleus
• Potential Energy
– Binding force that holds the electrons to the positive nucleus
– Stored Energy
– Electrons in higher shells have more energy—moving faster in
orbit
• Kinetic Energy
– Energy used

Radiography 1
Element has unique Atomic structure:
See periodic table:

Atomic Number (Z)= number of protons. This number is constant

and sets the atom apart from other elements.

Mass Number (A)= total number of protons and neutrons in the

nucleus. Mass numbers can be different for the same element –
the atoms with a different mass number are called isotopes. Over
500 isotopes that are radioactive/unstable. Instability of an
isotope is due to too few or many neutrons attempting to reach a
stable ratio, in doing so, they emit either alpha or beta particles;
capture orbital electrons, or emit gamma radiation.
Atomic #- number of protons, Atomic weight –sum of protons and
neutrons, electrically stable elements…

Radiography 1
Periodic table of elements
For any element:
• Number of Protons = Atomic Number
• Number of Electrons = Number of Protons = Atomic Number
• Number of Neutrons = Mass Number(atomic weight)/rounded -
Atomic Number

For krypton:
• Number of Protons ___________
• Number of Electrons _________
• Number of Neutrons= Mass rounded to 84= __________
• Atomic mass and atomic mass number are two important concepts. Here's a quick
review of what is meant by atomic mass and atomic mass number, as well as how
actual particle mass relates to atomic number.
• Z is used to signify the atomic number of an atom.
• Z = # of protons of an atom
• A is used to signify the atomic mass number (also known as atomic mass or
atomic weight) of an atom.
• A = # protons + # neutrons

• A and Z are integer values (expressed as whole numbers not fractions).

• When the actual mass of an atom is expressed in amu (atomic mass units) or
g/mol then the value is close to A.
• What Is Atomic Mass?
• Atomic mass is the sum of the masses of the protons, neutrons, and electrons in
an atom, or the average mass, in a group of atoms. However, electrons have so
much less mass than protons and neutrons that they don't factor into the
calculation. So, the atomic mass is the sum of the masses of protons and
neutrons.
Radiography 1
Ways To Find Atomic Mass
1) Look Up Atomic Mass on the Periodic Table
• This number usually is given below an element's symbol. –also called atomic weight. Look for the
decimal number, which is a weighted average of the atomic masses of all the natural isotopes of
an element.
• Example: If you are asked to give the atomic mass of carbon, you first need to know its element
symbol, C. Look for C on the periodic table. One number is carbon's element number or atomic
number. Atomic numbers increase as you go across the table and is the number of protons. This is
not the value you want. The atomic mass or atomic weight is the decimal number, The number of
significant figures varies according to the table, but the value is around 12.01.
• This value on a periodic table is given in atomic mass units or amu, but for chemistry calculations,
you usually write atomic mass in terms of grams per mole or g/mol. The atomic mass of carbon
would be 12.01 grams per mole of carbon atoms.
2) Sum of Protons and Neutrons for a Single Atom- is atomic mass
• To calculate the atomic mass of a single atom of an element, add up the mass of protons and
neutrons.
• Example: Find the atomic mass of an isotope of carbon that has 7 neutrons. You can see from the
periodic table that carbon has an atomic number of 6, which is its number of protons. The atomic
mass of the atom is the mass of the protons plus the mass of the neutrons, 6 + 7, or 13.
3) Weighted Average for All Atoms of an Element.

Radiography 1
Relationship between Number of Protons and
Neutrons and ISOTOPES
Isotopes are nuclides with the same number of protons but
differing numbers of neutrons (difference in atomic
weight); that is, they have the same atomic number and are
therefore the same chemical element. All elements with
atomic numbers greater than 83
are radioisotopes meaning that these elements
have unstable nuclei and are radioactive. Elements with
atomic numbers of 83 and less, have isotopes (stable
nucleus) and most have at least one radioisotope
(unstable nucleus).
Example: H, deuterium (heavy H-2), tritium H-3
• Radioactive element is unstable
• Unstable elements become stable by spontaneous
disintegration of atomic nuclei via electromagnetic
radiation and/or by particle radiation
• Emitted electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays) are used
in industrial radiography
• Neutrons in neutron radiography is particulate radiation
• Radiation either electromagnetic or particulate. Both
ionize matter
 Radiation and Radioactive Material are a Natural Part of
Our Lives

• We are constantly exposed to

low levels of radiation from
outer space, earth, and the
healing arts.
• Low levels of naturally
occurring radioactive material
are in our environment, the
food we eat, and in many
consumer products.
• Some consumer products
also contain small amounts of Smoke
Detector
man-made radioactive
material.
 Unstable Atoms Decay
• The number of “decays” that occur per unit
time in the radioactive material tell us how
radioactive it is.
– Units include Curies (Ci), decays per minute (dpm),
and Becquerels (distintegrations per second).
• When an unstable atom decays, it transforms
into another atom and releases it’s excess
energy in the form of radiation. Radiation can
be
– Electromagnetic radiation (like X or gamma rays), and
– Particles (like alpha, beta, or neutron radiation)
• Sometimes the new atom is also unstable,
creating a “decay chain”
 How Unstable Is It?
• The “Half-Life” describes how quickly Radioactive
Material decays away with time.

It is the time required for half of the unstable

atoms to decay.
• Some Examples Example:
– Some natural isotopes (like uranium and thorium) have
half-lives that are billions of years,
 Some Isotopes & Their Half Lives
ISOTOPE ½ Life APPLICATIONS
 Uranium billions  Natural uranium is comprised of several different
of years isotopes. When enriched in the isotope of U-235, it’s
used to power nuclear reactor or nuclear weapons.
 Carbon-14  5730 y  Found in nature from cosmic interactions, used to
“carbon date” items and as radiolabel for detection
of tumors.
 Cesium-137  30.2 y  Blood irradiators, tumor treatment through external
exposure. Also used for industrial radiography.
 Hydrogen-3  12.3 y Labeling biological tracers.
 Irridium-192 74 d Implants or "seeds" for treatment of cancer. Also used
for industrial radiography.
 Molybdenum- 66 h Parent for Tc-99m generator.
99
 Technicium-  6 h Brain, heart, liver (gastoenterology), lungs, bones,
99m thyroid, and kidney imaging, regional cerebral
blood flow, etc..
 The Amount of Radioactivity is NOT
Necessarily Related to Size
• Specific activity is the amount of radioactivity
found in a gram of material.

• Radioactive material with long half-lives have low

specific activity.

1 gram of Cobalt-60
has the same activity as
1800 tons of natural Uranium

• You can’t judge how much radiation is being

produced based on the physical size of the
source.

• Radioactive material with long half-lives,

meaning it decays away slowly, will not give off
a lot of radiation per unit mass. This is referred
to as the isotope’s Specific Activity.

• For isotopes like Cobalt-60, which only has a

half life of a few years, a gram of Co-60 has the
same activity (number of decays per minute) a
almost 2000 tons of uranium
 Common Sources in Industrial Radiography
and Half-lives
• Iridium-192 74 days
• Cobalt-60 5.3 years
• Caesium-137 30 years
• Selenium-75 120 days
• Radon-222 3.8 days
• Radium-226 1600 years

• Ir- has about 34 radioisotopes and 2 stable, naturally

occurring isotopes
Radiation Safety 28
Common Sources in Industrial Radiography

• Caesium -Cs
• Iridium-Ir
• Cobalt-Co
Find them in periodic table....
Why they are not listed as radioactive elements? They are
Naturally stable. #electrons=#protons. Stable mass number.
Atoms of the same element with different atomic masses are
called isotopes. Meaning they have different (more)
neutrons.
Atomic Mass number, Atomic Mass/ Atomic weight= Protons
(atomic #) + Neutrons

Radiography 1
 Questions
• What is “A” a unit of ? (Mass number). • Neutrons?= A (mass number minus Z
• What is “Z” – atomic number-# protons. (number of protons)
# of electrons equals number of
electrons. • Disintegration or decay
• What is a valence shell? • Activation (free neutrons increase A)
• What is so special about Hydrogen? No • Unstable=Radioactive
Neutron – a proton grabbing an electron Radiation=causes ionization
becomes hydrogen. Co-60:
• How man made isotopes are created? #protons-27
Fission –splitting large atoms and atomic weight-60
bombarding a nuclide –neutron #neutrons-33
activation/capture (most common for #electrons-27
producing isotopes in radiograghy –put 2-8-15-2
Co etc in a nucleur reactor during fission Ir-192:
of uranium or plutonium)
• Stable versus unstable atom? • Half life...

Radiography 1
 Radioactive isotope Decay processes:
1. Alpha Decay
• Alpha emission: a package of particles (2 protons + 2 neutrons) is created by
the isotope. Occurs in large nuclides (high number of protons-Z and Mass
number –A). Ie/ radium with atomic number of 88 and mass of 226 is
transformed to radon z-86, and A-222. radium is the parent and radon is the
decay product or daughter.
Other decay mechanisms and release processes in which unstable isotope
changes (decays) in order to become stable:
• Beta particle decay - ( 1 high speed electron)
• In all nuclear equations/transformations –emission of electromagnetic
radiation called a gamma radiation-Gamma ray is wave form of energy.

• Something-210 has 84 protons and 126 neutrons-> alpha decay-> becomes

Z=82 A=206
• So Po-210 after alpha decay becomes Pb-206 (lead)
Radiography 1
 2. Beta Decay
• Isotope with extra Neutrons trys to adjust itself by
converting a neutron to a proton and an electron—free
neutron changes into a proton and an electron
• In beta decay the electrons emitted (at great velocities)
are called the beta particles. Not orbital electrons- they
originate from the nucleus.
• When electron is removed from nuclei, the neutron
becomes a proton
• Ir-192 Z=77, A=192 -> beta decay-> Z=78, A=192
element becomes Pt-192 Platinum
Radiography 1
 3. Gamma Decay
No isotope has exactly the same pattern!
Ex: Tm-thulium -170 always emits Beta particles in certain predictable
range of energies plus Gamma rays of specific energy
The product of radioactive decay can be also
radioactive!
Ex: When Ra (radium) decays, it becomes Rn (radon), series of
disintegrations until stable Pb-206 (lead)

Note: All new elements that result from radioactive decay , whether
they are radioactive or not are called DAUGHTER PRODUCTS of
original radioactive isotope

Radiography 1
DECAY CHAIN OF URANIUM TO LEAD.
Parent Uranium isotope, decay daughters

Radiography 1
ONLY GAMMA RAYS ARE OF ANY USE TO
THE RADIOGRAPHER in Isotope decay
During the emission of Alpha and/or Beta
particles, there is an additional energy
adjustment that results in a Gamma ray.

We are interested:
1. Alpha emission with associated gamma ray
2. Beta emission with associated gamma ray
emission Radiography 1
 Energy and mass are interchangeable!
Small mass can be converted into high energies (basis of bombs- the conversion of nuclear
mass into energy).

Radiography 1
Each radioactive source has its own peculiar
pattern of decay
• One disintegration doesn’t mean that one
gamma ray is emitted
• Co-60  Beta particle + 2 Gamma one
disintegration results 2 Gamma rays

Radiography 1
 How radioactivity is measured?
Activity / Intensity of Radiation. How much radiation is emitted

Becquerel (Bq)- one disintegration per second

Curie (Ci)-Material has an “activity” of one
curie when 37 billion of its atoms disintegrate
in one second
1Ci=37 GBq
1 curie= 37 x 10 to the 9 Bq
Radiography 1
 Half- Life
• Over time an isotopes Activity / Intensity decreases by
means of decay processes. The half-life of an isotope is
the time it takes for ½ of the atoms of the isotope to
disintegrate –by means of decay. Therefore its
radiation activity or intensity is half
• Half life Co-60 is 5.3 years
• Half life Ir-192 is 75 days
• After the end of the half-life the source will have only
half as many curies/Bq as it originally had. Important
for industrial gamma radiography.
Radiography 1
Radiography 1
 Specific Activity
• The activity, in Curies or Bq, of 1 gram of any
radioactive source is known as the Specific Activity
of the source (Ci or Bq/g) (Curies or Bq per gram)
• Ex. If 2 grams of a Co-60 source has an activity of
50 Ci, the specific activity of the CO-60 source is 25
Ci/g. the higher the specific activity the greater
intensity from smaller source size…better due to
focal size...point of radiation emission outward
creates sharper image…we will visit this later.
Radiography 1
X-radiation: xrays are created/result from the transfer of energy between high speed
interaction of electrons and material of high density. It is controlled and man
generated, adjusting amount and wavelength and has on and off.

Gamma radiation: is spontaneously emitted from the unstable atom and cannot
be controlled. Isotopes for use in industrial radiography are artificially produced
radioisotopes in nuclear reactors. Production of radio isotopes is by three main
means: neutron activation, fission product separation and charged particle
production.

Ionization: both gamma and x radiation are ionizing, cause ionization, which is
when electrons are added or removed from an atom’s structure creating ions and
ion pair. Any atom or molecule which has a changed electric charge due to a loss
or gain of valence electrons. Free electrons are considered negative ions. An ion
pair is created by radiation, which ionizes in interaction with matter…an ion pair is
created. heavier, larger mass radiation causes more ionization. Ionization is the
loss or gain of electrons from an atom. ionizing radiation is radiation of enough
energy to remove electrons from an atom it passes through or interacts with. The
loss of an electron from the atom which radiation has effected creates an atom
with a positive charge while the gain of an electron from radiation would create an
atom with a negative charge.
Four Primary Types of Ionizing Radiation:
Alpha Particles
Alpha Particles: 2 neutrons and 2 protons
They travel short distances, have large mass
Only a hazard when inhaled
Four Primary Types of Ionizing Radiation:
Beta Particles
Beta Particles: Electrons or positrons having small mass and
variable energy. Electrons form when a neutron transforms into a
proton:
 Four Primary Types of Ionizing Radiation:
Gamma Rays
Gamma Rays (or photons): Result when the nucleus releases

Energy, usually after an alpha, beta or positron transition. A gamma

particle is a photon. It is produced as a step in a radioactive decay chain
when a massive nucleus produced by fission relaxes from the excited state in
which it first formed towards its lowest energy or ground-state configuration.
 Four Primary Types of Ionizing Radiation:

X-Rays

X-Rays: Occur during atomic interactions of electrons in a material and high potential
energy, where 1. whenever an inner shell orbital electron is removed and rearrangement
of the atomic electrons results with the release of characteristic X-Ray energy or 2. the
release of energy from high speed electron as it travels through an atom.
 Four Primary Types of Ionizing Radiation:

Neutrons

Neutrons: Have the same mass as protons but are uncharged

They behave like bowling balls in matter

Direct Ionization Caused By:
• Alpha Particles & Protons
• Beta Particles & Positron Particles

Indirect Ionization Caused By:

• Neutrons
• Gamma Rays
• X-Rays
Properties of X and Gamma Radiation:
• They are ionizing EM radiation – energy is proportional to
frequency.
• No electrical charge. No rest mass.
• Travel in straight line at the speed of light. Unaffected by
electric or magnetic fields.
• Penetrate matter.
• Absorbed by matter.
• Scattered by matter.
• Ionize matter.
• Expose photographic emulsions.
• Makes some chemicals fluoresce (glow in the dark).
• CAN NOT BE FELT, SEEN, HEARD, SMELLED, OR DETECTED IN
ANY WAY BY THE HUMAN BODY.
• DAMAGES LIVING TISUES.
Gamma Advantages:
• Cost of source and equipment is less than that of X-ray machines of
penetrating power.
• The isotope source material itself is small enough to pass through very
small (1”) diameter openings.
• Isotope equipment is more easily transported. Portability
• Both panoramic and directional exposures can be made. Emits radiation in
all directions. Good for circumferential exposure –pipe weld.
• No external power source is necessary; therefore, inspection
can be performed in remote areas. No duty cycle or warm up.
• Certain radioisotopes have very high penetrating level, thus
obtaining satisfactory radiographs of very thick specimens.
• Equipment is extremely rugged, simple to operate and maintain.
Limitations:

• Potential hazard as radiation cannot be switched off.

• Penetrating ability is solely dependent upon the particular
isotope used and cannot be changed or varied without
changing the isotope. Sensitivity can be less than X-ray.
• Finished radiographs generally have less contrast than those
exposed by X-radiation.
• They have to be effectively shielded to be safe to handle;
shielding can be quite heavy.
• The cost of replacing isotopes is high.
X-ray Advantages:
• Can be turned off
• Adjustable output intensity and energy level (can be set for various
materials and thickness)
• Not regulated under C.N.S.C
• Increased flexibility for materials and thickness

X-ray Disadvantages:
• Cannot fit in small spaces (X-Ray tube is large)
• Equipment is more expensive and easily damaged. Many components
I.e./ electrical.
 REVIEW
1. What is the difference between gamma
radiography and x-rays?
2. Name main parts of an atom.
3. What does it mean “unstable atom” and what is
the difference between stable and unstable atoms?
4. Name Radioisotopes used in industrial gamma
radiography.
5. History –what do you remember, google: Curies,
Roentgen, Bequerel

Radiation Safety 53