CENG 4406

Mobile Computing and smart phone

application

Lecture # 2
Cellular wireless technologies
Mobile Communication Technology
according to IEEE (examples)
WiFi
802.11a 802.11h

Personal wireless nw 802.11b 802.11g

WPAN 802.15 802.15.5, .6 (WBAN)
ZigBee
802.15.4 802.15.4a/b/c/d/e/f/g 802.15.3b/c

802.15.2 802.15.3
802.15.1
Wireless distributionBluetooth
networks
WMAN 802.16 (Broadband Wireless Access)
WiMAX
+ Mobility
[802.20 (Mobile Broadband Wireless Access)]
802.16e (addition to .16 for mobile devices)
Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 2
Mobile Communications
Schiller Chapter 3 :
Media Access
• Motivation
• SDMA, FDMA, TDMA
• Aloha, reservation schemes
• Collision avoidance, MACA
• Polling
• CDMA, SAMA
• Comparison
 Motivation
Can we apply media access methods from fixed/wired
networks?
Example CSMA/CD
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
 send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if a
collision occurs (legacy method in IEEE 802.3)
Problems in wireless networks
 signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
 the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the
receiver
 it might be the case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e.,
CD does not work
 furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is “hidden”

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Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 4
Motivation - hidden and exposed
terminals
Hidden terminals
 A sends to B, C cannot receive A
 C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails)
 collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
 A is “hidden” for C

A B C
Exposed terminals
 B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)
 C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
 but A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not necessary
 C is “exposed” to B

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 5

Motivation - near and far terminals
Terminals A and B send, C receives
 signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
 the signal of terminal B therefore drowns out A’s signal
 C cannot receive A

A B C

If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal B would

drown out terminal A already on the physical layer
Also severe problem for CDMA-networks - precise power control
needed!

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 6

 Access methods SDMA/FDMA/TDMA
SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)
 segment space into sectors, use directed antennas
 cell structure
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
 assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a
sender and a receiver
 permanent (e.g., radio broadcast), slow hopping (e.g., GSM), fast
hopping (FHSS, Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
 assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission channel between
a sender and a receiver for a certain amount of time

The multiplexing schemes presented in chapter 2 are now used to

control medium access.

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Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 7
MACA variant: DFWMAC in IEEE802.11

sender receiver

idle idle
packet ready to send; RTS
data;
RxBusy time-out; ACK
wait for the RTS RTS;
time-out 
ACK right to send CTS
time-out  data;
NAK; NAK
RTS CTS; data
wait for
wait for ACK data

ACK: positive acknowledgement RxBusy: receiver busy RTS; RxBusy

NAK: negative acknowledgement

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 8

Polling mechanisms
If one terminal can be heard by all others, this “central” terminal
(a.k.a. base station) can poll all other terminals according to a
certain scheme
 now all schemes known from fixed networks can be used (typical
mainframe - terminal scenario)
Example: Randomly Addressed Polling
 base station signals readiness to all mobile terminals
 terminals ready to send can now transmit a random number without
collision with the help of CDMA or FDMA (the random number can be
seen as dynamic address)
 the base station now chooses one address for polling from the list of all
random numbers (collision if two terminals choose the same address)
 the base station acknowledges correct packets and continues polling
the next terminal
 this cycle starts again after polling all terminals of the list

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 9

 Access method CDMA
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
 all terminals send on the same frequency probably at the same time and can
use the whole bandwidth of the transmission channel
 each sender has a unique random number, the sender XORs the signal with
this random number
 the receiver can “tune” into this signal if it knows the pseudo random number,
tuning is done via a correlation function
Disadvantages:
 higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium and
start receiving if there is a signal)
 all signals should have the same strength at a receiver
Advantages:
 all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
 huge code space (e.g. 232) compared to frequency space
 interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
 forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated

04/11/2020
Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 10
SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA
Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA
Idea segment space into segment sending segment the spread the spectrum
cells/sectors time into disjoint frequency band into using orthogonal codes
time-slots, demand disjoint sub-bands
driven or fixed
patterns
Terminals only one terminal can all terminals are every terminal has its all terminals can be active
be active in one active for short own frequency, at the same place at the
cell/one sector periods of time on uninterrupted same moment,
the same frequency uninterrupted
Signal cell structure, directed synchronization in filtering in the code plus special
separation antennas the time domain frequency domain receivers

Advantages very simple, increases established, fully
capacity per km²
Dis- inflexible, antennas
advantages typically fixed
Comment only in combination
with TDMA, FDMA or
CDMA useful
simple, established, flexible, less frequency
digital, flexible robust planning needed, soft
handover
guard space inflexible, complex receivers, needs
needed (multipath frequencies are a more complicated power
propagation), scarce resource control for senders
synchronization
difficult
standard in fixed typically combined still faces some problems,
networks, together with TDMA higher complexity,
with FDMA/SDMA (frequency hopping lowered expectations; will
used in many patterns) and SDMA be integrated with
mobile networks (frequency reuse) TDMA/FDMA

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 11

GSM, DECT, TETRA,
UMTS, LTE
Schiller Chapter 4: Wireless
Telecommunication Systems
How does it work?
How can the system locate a user?
Why don’t all phones ring at the same time?
What happens if two users talk
simultaneously?
Why don’t I get the bill from my neighbor?
Why can an Australian use her phone in
Berlin?
Why can’t I simply overhear the neighbor’s communication?
How secure is the mobile phone system?
What are the key components of the mobile phone
network?

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 13

GSM: Overview
GSM
 Global System for Mobile Communication
 formerly: Groupe Spéciale Mobile (founded 1982)
 Pan-European standard (ETSI, European
Telecommunications Standardization Institute)
GSM all over the world
 219 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, America
 USA: T-mobile, AT&T, Cinci Bell, …
 > 4.2 billion subscribers in >700 networks
 > 75% of all digital mobile phones
 www.gsmworld.com/newsroom/market-data/index.htm

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 14

 Performance characteristics of
GSM
Communication
 mobile, wireless communication; support for voice and data services
Total mobility
 international access, chip-card enables use of access points of different
providers
Worldwide connectivity
 one number, the network handles localization
High capacity
 better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers per cell
High transmission quality
 high audio quality and reliability for wireless, uninterrupted phone calls at
higher speeds (e.g., from cars, trains)
Security functions
 access control, authentication via chip-card and PIN

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Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 15
Disadvantages of GSM
no end-to-end encryption of user data
roaming profiles accessible
high complexity of the system
several incompatibilities within the GSM
standards

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 16

GSM: Mobile Services
Bearer Services
Telematic Services
Supplementary Services

bearer services
MS
transit source/
TE MT GSM-PLMN network destination TE
R, S Um (PSTN, ISDN) network (U, S, R)

tele services

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 17

Bearer Services
Telecommunication services to transfer data between access
points
Specification of services up to the terminal interface (OSI layers 1-
3)
Different data rates for voice and data (original standard)
 data service (circuit switched)
 synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s
 asynchronous: 300 - 1200 bit/s
 data service (packet switched)
 synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s
 asynchronous: 300 - 9600 bit/s

Today: data rates of approx. 50 kbit/s possible

 even more with new modulation

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 18

Telecommunication Services I
mobile telephony
offering the traditional bandwidth of 3.1 kHz
Emergency number
common number throughout Europe (112);
mandatory for all service providers; free of
charge; connection with the highest priority
(preemption of other connections possible)
Multinumbering
several ISDN phone numbers per user
possible

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 19

Tele Services II: Non-Voice-
Teleservices
group 3 fax
voice mailbox (implemented in the fixed network supporting the
mobile terminals)
electronic mail (MHS, Message Handling System, implemented in
the fixed network)
...

Short Message Service (SMS)

alphanumeric data transmission to/from the mobile terminal (160
characters) using the signaling channel, thus allowing
simultaneous use of basic services and SMS
(almost ignored in the beginning now the most successful add-on!)

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 20

Supplementary services
Services in addition to the basic services, cannot be offered
stand-alone
Similar to ISDN services besides lower bandwidth due to the
radio link
May differ between different service providers, countries and
protocol versions
Important services
 identification: forwarding of caller number
 suppression of number forwarding
 automatic call-back
 conferencing with up to 7 participants
 locking of the mobile terminal (incoming or outgoing calls)
 ...

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 21

Architecture of the GSM system
GSM is a PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network)
 several providers setup mobile networks following the GSM
standard within each country
 components
 MS (mobile station)
 BS (base station)
 MSC (mobile switching center)
 LR (location register)
 subsystems
 RSS (radio subsystem): covers all radio aspects
 NSS (network and switching subsystem): call forwarding,
handover, switching
 OSS (operation subsystem): management of the network

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 22

GSM:OMC,
overview
AUC
EIR,

HLR
GMSC
NSS fixed network
with OSS

VLR MSC MSC

VLR

BSC

BSC

RSS

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 23

segmentation of the area into
cells
use of several carrier frequencies
not the same frequency in adjoining cells
cell sizes vary from some 100 m up to 35 km depending on
user density, geography, transceiver power etc.
hexagonal shape of cells is idealized (cells overlap, shapes
depend on geography)
if a mobile user changes cells handover of the connection to
the neighbor cell
possible radio coverage of the cell

cell
idealized shape of the cell

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 24

GSM: system architecture
radio
subsystem
network and
switching subsystem
fixed
partner networks

MS MS
ISDN
PSTN
Um MSC

BTS Abis
BSC EIR
BTS

SS7
HLR

BTS VLR
BSC ISDN
BTS MSC PSTN
A
BSS IWF
PSPDN
CSPDN

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 25

Radio subsystem
radio
subsystem
network and switching
subsystem Components
 MS (Mobile Station)
MS MS  BSS (Base Station Subsystem):
consisting of
Um
 BTS (Base Transceiver Station):
sender and receiver
BTS Abis  BSC (Base Station Controller):
BSC MSC
controlling several transceivers
BTS
Interfaces

Um : radio interface

Abis : standardized, open interface
with
A 16 kbit/s user channels
BTS
MSC
 A: standardized, open interface
BSC
BTS with
64 kbit/s user channels
BSS

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 26

 •

Network and switching subsystem

network
subsystem
fixed partner
networks
•Components
MSC (Mobile Services Switching
Center): ISDN
IWF (Interworking PSTN
Functions)
MSC
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network)
PSTN (Public Switched
Telephone
EIR Network)
PSPDN (Packet Switched Public
Data Net.)
SS7

CSPDNHLR(Circuit Switched Public

Data Net.)

•Databases
VLR
HLR (Home Location Register)
ISDN
MSC VLR (Visitor Location Register)
PSTN
EIR (Equipment Identity
IWF
Register) PSPDN
CSPDN

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 27

GSM frequency bands (examples)
Type Channels Uplink Downlink
[MHz] [MHz]
GSM 850 128-251 824-849 869-894
GSM 900 0-124, 955- 876-915 921-960
classical 1023 890-915 935-960
extended 124 channels 880-915 925-960
+49 channels
GSM 1800 512-885 1710-1785 1805-1880
GSM 1900 512-810 1850-1910 1930-1990
GSM-R 955-1024, 876-915 921-960
exclusive 0-124 876-880 921-925
69 channels

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 28

Mobile station
Terminal for the use of GSM services
A mobile station (MS) comprises several functional groups
 MT (Mobile Terminal):
 offers common functions used by all services the MS offers
 corresponds to the network termination (NT) of an ISDN access
 end-point of the radio interface (Um)
 TA (Terminal Adapter):
 terminal adaptation, hides radio specific characteristics
 TE (Terminal Equipment):
 peripheral device of the MS, offers services to a user
 does not contain GSM specific functions
 SIM (Subscriber Identity Module):
 personalization of the mobile terminal, stores user parameters
TE TA MT
Um
R S

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 29

Network and switching subsystem
NSS is the main component of the public mobile network GSM
 switching, mobility management, interconnection to other
networks, system control
Components
 Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
controls all connections via a separated network to/from a mobile
terminal within the domain of the MSC - several BSC can belong
to a MSC
 Databases (important: scalability, high capacity, low delay)
 Home Location Register (HLR)
central master database containing user data, permanent and semi-
permanent data of all subscribers assigned to the HLR (one provider
can have several HLRs)
 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
local database for a subset of user data, including data about all user
currently in the domain of the VLR

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 30

Mobile Services Switching Center
The MSC (mobile services switching center) plays a central role in GSM
 switching functions
 additional functions for mobility support
 management of network resources
 interworking functions via Gateway MSC (GMSC)
 integration of several databases
Functions of a MSC
 specific functions for paging and call forwarding
 termination of SS7 (signaling system no. 7)
 mobility specific signaling
 location registration and forwarding of location information
 provision of new services (fax, data calls)
 support of short message service (SMS)
 generation and forwarding of accounting and billing information

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 31

Operation subsystem
The OSS (Operation Subsystem) enables centralized
operation, management, and maintenance of all GSM
subsystems
Components
 Authentication Center (AUC)
 generates user specific authentication parameters on request of a VLR
 authentication parameters used for authentication of mobile terminals
and encryption of user data on the air interface within the GSM system
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 registers GSM mobile stations and user rights
 stolen or malfunctioning mobile stations can be locked and sometimes
even localized
 Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
 different control capabilities for the radio subsystem and the network
subsystem

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 32

GSM - TDMA/FDMA
en
yc
935-960 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)
downlink
qu

890-915 MHz
fre

124 channels (200 kHz)

uplink
higher GSM frame structures
time

GSM TDMA frame

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4.615 ms

GSM time-slot (normal burst)

guard guard
space tail user data S Training S user data tail space
3 bits 57 bits 1 26 bits 1 57 bits 3
546.5 µs
577 µs

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 33

GSM hierarchy
0 1 2 ...
of frames
hyperframe
2045 2046 2047 3 h 28 min 53.76 s

superframe
0 1 2 ... 48 49 50
6.12 s
0 1 ... 24 25

multiframe
0 1 ... 24 25 120 ms

0 1 2 ... 48 49 50 235.4 ms

frame
0 1 ... 6 7 4.615 ms
slot
burst 577 µs

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 34

GSM protocol layers for signaling

Um Abis A
MS BTS BSC MSC

CM CM

MM MM
BSSAP BSSAP
RR RR’
BTSM
RR’ BTSM
SS7 SS7
LAPDm LAPDm LAPD LAPD

radio radio PCM PCM PCM PCM

16/64 kbit/s 64 kbit/s /

2.048 Mbit/s

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 35

Mobile Terminated Call
1: calling a GSM subscriber
2: forwarding call to GMSC
3: signal 4
HLRcall setup
VLRto HLR
5
4, 5: request MSRN 8 9from VLR
3 6 14 15
6: forward responsible
calling MSC 7
to GMSC
PSTN GMSC MSC
station 1 2
7: forward call to
current10MSC10 13 10
16
8, 9:BSS
get currentBSS
status of MS
BSS
10, 11:
11 paging of11MS 11
12, 13: MS answers
11 12
14, 15: security checks
17
16, 17: set up connection
MS

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 36

Mobile Originated Call
1, 2: connection
request VLR

3, 4: security check 3 4
6 5
5-8: check resources PSTN
7
GMSC
8
MSC

(free circuit) 2 9
1
9-10: set up call MS
10
BSS

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 37

Mobile Terminated/Originated
MS MTC MOC
paging request
Call BTS MS BTS

channel request channel request

immediate assignment immediate assignment
paging response service request
authentication request authentication request
authentication response authentication response
ciphering command ciphering command
ciphering complete ciphering complete
setup setup
call confirmed call confirmed
assignment command assignment command
assignment complete assignment complete
alerting alerting
connect connect
connect acknowledge connect acknowledge
data/speech exchange data/speech exchange

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 38

4 types 1of handover
2 3 4
MS MS MS MS

BTS BTS BTS BTS

BSC BSC BSC

MSC MSC

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 39

Handover decision
receive level receive level
BTSold BTSold

HO_MARGIN

MS MS

BTSold BTSnew

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 40

Handover procedure
MS BTSold
measurement
BSCold MSC BSCnew BTSnew
measurement
report result

HO decision
HO required HO request
resource allocation
ch. activation

HO command HO request ack ch. activation ack

HO command HO command
HO access
Link establishment

HO complete HO complete
clear command clear command
clear complete clear complete

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 41

DECT
DECT (Digital European Cordless Telephone) standardized by ETSI
(ETS 300.175-x) for cordless telephones
standard describes air interface between base-station and mobile phone
DECT has been renamed for international marketing reasons into „Digital
Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication“
Characteristics
 frequency: 1880-1990 MHz
 channels: 120 full duplex
 duplex mechanism: TDD (Time Division Duplex) with 10 ms frame length
 multplexing scheme: FDMA with 10 carrier frequencies,
TDMA with 2x 12 slots
 modulation: digital, Gaußian Minimum Shift Key (GMSK)
 power: 10 mW average (max. 250 mW)
 range: approx. 50 m in buildings, 300 m open space

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 42

DECT system architecture
reference
D 4
model
D 3

D2 VDB
PA PT
FT
local HDB
network
PA PT D1
global
FT network

local
network

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 43

DECT reference
C-Plane U-Plane model close to the OSI
signaling,
interworking
application
processes
reference model
management plane
over all layers
network several services in
management

OSI layer 3
layer
C(ontrol)- and
data link data link U(ser)-plane
control control
OSI layer 2
medium access control

physical layer OSI layer 1

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 44

DECT layers I
Physical layer
 modulation/demodulation
 generation of the physical channel structure with a guaranteed
throughput
 controlling of radio transmission
 channel assignment on request of the MAC layer
 detection of incoming signals
 sender/receiver synchronization
 collecting status information for the management plane
MAC layer
 maintaining basic services, activating/deactivating physical channels
 multiplexing of logical channels
 e.g., C: signaling, I: user data, P: paging, Q: broadcast
 segmentation/reassembly
 error control/error correction

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 45

DECT layers II
Data link control layer
 creation and keeping up reliable connections between the mobile
terminal and basestation
 two DLC protocols for the control plane (C-Plane)
 connectionless broadcast service:
paging functionality
 Lc+LAPC protocol:
in-call signaling (similar to LAPD within ISDN), adapted to the underlying
MAC service
 several services specified for the user plane (U-Plane)
 null-service: offers unmodified MAC services
 frame relay: simple packet transmission
 frame switching: time-bounded packet transmission
 error correcting transmission: uses FEC, for delay critical, time-bounded
services
 bandwidth adaptive transmission
 “Escape” service: for further enhancements of the standard

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 46

DECT layers III
Network layer
 similar to ISDN (Q.931) and GSM (04.08)
 offers services to request, check, reserve, control, and release
resources at the basestation and mobile terminal
 resources
 necessary for a wireless connection
 necessary for the connection of the DECT system to the fixed
network
 main tasks
 call control: setup, release, negotiation, control
 call independent services: call forwarding, accounting, call
redirecting
 mobility management: identity management, authentication,
management of the location register

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 47

Enhancements of the standard
Several „DECT Application Profiles“ in addition to the DECT specification
 GAP (Generic Access Profile) standardized by ETSI in 1997
 assures interoperability between DECT equipment of different manufacturers (minimal
requirements for voice communication)
 enhanced management capabilities through the fixed network: Cordless Terminal Mobility
(CTM)

DECT DECT DECT

basestation Common Portable Part
Air Interface
fixed network

GAP
 DECT/GSM Interworking Profile (GIP): connection to GSM
 ISDN Interworking Profiles (IAP, IIP): connection to ISDN
 Radio Local Loop Access Profile (RAP): public telephone service
 CTM Access Profile (CAP): support for user mobility

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 48

UMTS and IMT-2000
Proposals for IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications)
 UWC-136, cdma2000, WP-CDMA
 UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) from ETSI
UMTS
 UTRA (was: UMTS, now: Universal Terrestrial Radio Access)
 enhancements of GSM
 EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution): GSM up to 384 kbit/s
 CAMEL (Customized Application for Mobile Enhanced Logic)
 VHE (virtual Home Environment)
 fits into GMM (Global Multimedia Mobility) initiative from ETSI
 requirements
 min. 144 kbit/s rural (goal: 384 kbit/s)
 min. 384 kbit/s suburban (goal: 512 kbit/s)
 up to 2 Mbit/s urban

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 49

IMT-2000 family
Interface
for Internetworking

IMT-2000
GSM ANSI-41
Core Network IP-Network
(MAP) (IS-634)
ITU-T

Initial UMTS Flexible assignment of

(R99 w/ FDD) Core Network and Radio Access

IMT-DS IMT-TC IMT-MC IMT-SC IMT-FT

(Direct Spread) (Time Code) (Multi Carrier) (Single Carrier) (Freq. Time)
IMT-2000 UTRA TDD
Radio Access UTRA FDD (TD-CDMA); cdma2000 UWC-136 DECT
ITU-R (W-CDMA) TD-SCDMA (EDGE)
3GPP 3GPP 3GPP2 UWCC/3GPP ETSI

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 50

UMTS protocol stacks (user
plane) UE U UTRAN I CS 3G
u u
MSC
apps. &
protocols

Circuit RLC RLC

SAR SAR

switched MAC MAC AAL2 AAL2

radio radio ATM ATM

UE Uu UTRAN IuPS 3G Gn 3G
apps. & SGSN GGSN
protocols
IP, PPP, IP tunnel IP, PPP,
… …
Packet PDCP
PDCP GTP GTP GTP GTP

switched RLC RLC UDP/IP UDP/IP UDP/IP UDP/IP

MAC MAC AAL5 AAL5 L2 L2
radio radio ATM ATM L1 L1

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 51

Support of mobility: macro
diversity Multicasting of data via several
physical channels
 Enables soft handover
 FDD mode only
UE Node B
Uplink
 simultaneous reception of UE
data at several Node Bs
 Reconstruction of data at
Node B RNC CN
Node B, SRNC or DRNC
Downlink
 Simultaneous transmission of
data via different cells
 Different spreading codes in
different cells
Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 52
Support of mobility: handover
From and to other systems (e.g., UMTS to GSM)
 This is a must as UMTS coverage will be poor in the beginning
RNS controlling the connection is called SRNS (Serving RNS)
RNS offering additional resources (e.g., for soft handover) is
called Drift RNS (DRNS)
End-to-end connections between UE and CN only via Iu at the
SRNS
 Change of SRNS requires change of Iu
 Initiated by the SRNS
 Controlled by the RNC and CN
Node B SRNC CN
Iub Iu
UE Iur

Node B DRNC
Iub

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 53

Example handover types in
UMTS/GSM

UE1
Node B1 RNC1 3G MSC1
Iu
UE2
Node B2 Iub Iur

UE3 Node B3 RNC2 3G MSC2

UE4
BTS BSC 2G MSC3
Abis A

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 54

Breathing Cells
GSM
 Mobile device gets exclusive signal from the base station
 Number of devices in a cell does not influence cell size

UMTS
 Cell size is closely correlated to the cell capacity
 Signal-to-nose ratio determines cell capacity
 Noise is generated by interference from
 other cells
 other users of the same cell
 Interference increases noise level
 Devices at the edge of a cell cannot further increase their output power
(max. power limit) and thus drop out of the cell
 no more communication possible
 Limitation of the max. number of users within a cell required

 Cell breathing complicates network planning

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 55

Breathing Cells: Example

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 56

Long Term Evolution (LTE)
Initiated in 2004 by NTT DoCoMo,
focus on enhancing the Universal
Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA) and
optimizing 3GPP’s radio access architecture
Targets: Downlink 100 Mbit/s, uplink 50 Mbit/s, RTT<10ms
2007: E UTRA progressed from the feasibility study stage to
the first issue of approved Technical Specifications
2008: stable for commercial implementation
2009: first public LTE service available (Stockholm and Oslo)
2010: LTE starts in Germany
LTE is not 4G – sometimes called 3.9G
 Does not fulfill all requirements for IMT advanced

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 57

Key LTE features
Simplified network architecture compared to GSM/UMTS
 Flat IP-based network replacing the GPRS core, optimized for the IP-Multimedia
Subsystem (IMS), no more circuit switching
Network should be in parts self-organizing
Scheme for soft frequency reuse between cells
 Inner part uses all subbands with less power
 Outer part uses pre-served subbands with higher power
Much higher data throughput supported by multiple antennas
Much higher flexibility in terms of spectrum, bandwidth, data rates
Much lower RTT – good for interactive traffic and gaming
Smooth transition from W-CDMA/HSPA, TD-SCDMA and cdma2000 1x EV-
DO – but completely different radio!
Large step towards 4G – IMT advanced

See www.3gpp.org for all specs, tables, figures etc.!

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 58

High flexibility E-UTRA Uplink (UL) operating band Downlink (DL) operating band Duplex
E-UTRA (Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access)
Operating
Band
BS receive
UE transmit
BS transmit
UE receive
Mode
 Operating bands FUL_low – FUL_high FDL_low – FDL_high
700-2700MHz 1 1920 MHz – 1980 MHz 2110 MHz – 2170 MHz FDD
2 1850 MHz – 1910 MHz 1930 MHz – 1990 MHz FDD
 Channel bandwidth 1.4, 3 1710 MHz – 1785 MHz 1805 MHz – 1880 MHz FDD
4 1710 MHz – 1755 MHz 2110 MHz – 2155 MHz FDD
3, 5, 10, 15, or 20 MHz 5 824 MHz – 849 MHz 869 MHz – 894MHz FDD
1
 TDD and FDD 6 830 MHz – 840 MHz 875 MHz – 885 MHz FDD
7 2500 MHz – 2570 MHz 2620 MHz – 2690 MHz FDD
880 MHz – 915 MHz 925 MHz – 960 MHz FDD
Modulation 8
9 1749.9 MHz – 1784.9 MHz 1844.9 MHz – 1879.9 MHz FDD
 QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM 10 1710 MHz – 1770 MHz 2110 MHz – 2170 MHz FDD
11 1427.9 MHz – 1447.9 MHz 1475.9 MHz – 1495.9 MHz FDD
Multiple Access 12 699 MHz – 716 MHz 729 MHz – 746 MHz FDD
13 777 MHz – 787 MHz 746 MHz – 756 MHz FDD
 OFDMA (DL), 14 788 MHz – 798 MHz 758 MHz – 768 MHz FDD
SC-FDMA (UL) 15 Reserved Reserved FDD
16 Reserved Reserved FDD
Peak data rates 17
18
704 MHz – 716 MHz
815 MHz – 830 MHz
734 MHz – 746 MHz
860 MHz – 875 MHz
FDD
FDD
 300 Mbit/s DL 19 830 MHz – 845 MHz 875 MHz – 890 MHz FDD
20 832 MHz – 862 MHz 791 MHz – 821 MHz FDD
 75 Mbit/s UL 21 1447.9 MHz – 1462.9 MHz 1495.9 MHz – 1510.9 MHz FDD
 Depends on UE ...
33 1900 MHz – 1920 MHz 1900 MHz – 1920 MHz TDD
category 34 2010 MHz – 2025 MHz 2010 MHz – 2025 MHz TDD
35 1850 MHz – 1910 MHz 1850 MHz – 1910 MHz TDD
Cell radius 36 1930 MHz – 1990 MHz 1930 MHz – 1990 MHz TDD
37 1910 MHz – 1930 MHz 1910 MHz – 1930 MHz TDD
 From <1km to 100km 38 2570 MHz – 2620 MHz 2570 MHz – 2620 MHz TDD
39 1880 MHz – 1920 MHz 1880 MHz – 1920 MHz TDD
40 2300 MHz – 2400 MHz 2300 MHz – 2400 MHz TDD
Note 1: Band 6 is not applicable

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 59

LTE frame structure Radio frame (10 ms)

0 1 2 ... 7 8 9
UL
FDD Subframe (1 ms)

DL 0 1 2 ... 7 8 9

Synchronization is part of subframe 0 and 5

0 1 2 ... 7 8 9

TDD UL/DL ...

Downlink Pilot Time Slot Uplink Pilot Time Slot

(data plus pilot signal) (random access plus pilot signal)
Guard Period

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 60

LTE architecture Mobility Management Entity
Packet-data network Gateway
Serving Gateway
Home Subscriber Server
Policy and Charging Rules Function
Uu
UE2
MME GPRS
eNode B S10 S3

X2-U/-C MME HSS

eNode B X2-U/-C S1-MME S6

UE1 S1-MME S11

X2-U/-C eNode B S4
Uu
PCRF
S1-U
X2-U/-C S7
eNode B S-GW Rx+

S1-U S5 S8 (roaming)
Internet,
eNode B Operators…
P-GW SGi
E-UTRAN EPC (Evolved Packet Core)

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 61

LTE advanced
GSM – UMTS - LTE
 LTE advanced as candidate for IMT-advanced
Worldwide functionality & roaming
Compatibility of services
Interworking with other radio access systems
Enhanced peak data rates to support advanced services and
applications (100 Mbit/s for high and 1 Gbit/s for low mobility)
3GPP will be contributing to the ITU-R towards the
development of IMT-Advanced via its proposal for LTE-
Advanced.
Relay Nodes to increase coverage
100 MHz bandwidth (5x LTE with 20 MHz)

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 62

Wireless IEEE 802.11
Schiller Chapter 7: Wireless LANs
Characteristics of wireless LANs
Advantages
 very flexible within the reception area
 Ad-hoc networks without previous planning possible
 (almost) no wiring difficulties (e.g. historic buildings, firewalls)
 more robust against disasters like, e.g., earthquakes, fire - or
users pulling a plug...
Disadvantages
 typically very low bandwidth compared to wired networks
(1-10 Mbit/s) due to shared medium
 many proprietary solutions, especially for higher bit-rates,
standards take their time (e.g. IEEE 802.11n)
 products have to follow many national restrictions if working
wireless, it takes a vary long time to establish global solutions like,
e.g., IMT-2000

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 64

Design goals for wireless LANs
global, seamless operation
low power for battery use
no special permissions or licenses needed to use the LAN
robust transmission technology
simplified spontaneous cooperation at meetings
easy to use for everyone, simple management
protection of investment in wired networks
security (no one should be able to read my data), privacy (no
one should be able to collect user profiles), safety (low radiation)
transparency concerning applications and higher layer protocols,
but also location awareness if necessary
…

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 65

Comparison: infrared vs. radio
transmission
Infrared
 uses IR diodes, diffuse light, multiple
reflections (walls, furniture etc.)
Advantages
 simple, cheap, available in many
mobile devices
 no licenses needed
 simple shielding possible
Disadvantages
 interference by sunlight, heat
sources etc.
 many things shield or absorb IR light
 low bandwidth
Example
 IrDA (Infrared Data Association)
interface available everywhere
Radio
 typically using the license free
ISM band at 2.4 GHz
Advantages
 experience from wireless WAN
and mobile phones can be used
 coverage of larger areas
possible (radio can penetrate
walls, furniture etc.)
Disadvantages
 very limited license free
frequency bands
 shielding more difficult,
interference with other electrical
devices
Example
 Many different products

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 66

Comparison: infrastructure vs. ad-
hoc networks
infrastructure
network
AP: Access Point
AP

AP wired network
AP

ad-hoc network

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 67

802.11 - Architecture of an
infrastructure network
Station (STA)
802.11 LAN  terminal with access mechanisms to
802.x LAN the wireless medium and radio
contact to the access point
Basic Service Set (BSS)
STA1  group of stations using the same
BSS1
radio frequency
Access Portal
Point
Access Point
 station integrated into the wireless
Distribution System LAN and the distribution system

Access Portal
ESS Point
 bridge to other (wired) networks
Distribution System
BSS2  interconnection network to form one
logical network (EES: Extended
Service Set) based
on several BSS

STA2 802.11 LAN STA3

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications

802.11 - Architecture of an ad-hoc
network
Direct communication within a
802.11 LAN limited range
 Station (STA):
terminal with access mechanisms
STA1 to the wireless medium
IBSS1 STA3
 Independent Basic Service Set
(IBSS):
group of stations using the same
STA2 radio frequency

IBSS2

STA5

STA4 802.11 LAN

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications

IEEE standard 802.11 fixed
terminal
mobile terminal

infrastructure
network

access point
application application
TCP TCP
IP IP
LLC LLC LLC
802.11 MAC 802.11 MAC 802.3 MAC 802.3 MAC
802.11 PHY 802.11 PHY 802.3 PHY 802.3 PHY

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 70

 802.11
MAC - Layers
access mechanisms,

and functions
PLCP
clear channel assessment signal 
Physical Layer Convergence Protocol

fragmentation, encryption (carrier sense)

MAC Management PMD Physical Medium Dependent

 modulation, coding
 synchronization, roaming, MIB,
power management PHY Management
 channel selection, MIB
Station Management
 coordination of all management
functions

Station Management
LLC
DLC

MAC MAC Management

PLCP
PHY

PHY Management
PMD

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 71

802.11 - Physical layer (legacy)
3 versions: 2 radio (typ. 2.4 GHz), 1 IR
 data rates 1 or 2 Mbit/s
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
 spreading, despreading, signal strength, typ. 1 Mbit/s
 min. 2.5 frequency hops/s (USA), two-level GFSK modulation
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
 DBPSK modulation for 1 Mbit/s (Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying),
DQPSK for 2 Mbit/s (Differential Quadrature PSK)
 preamble and header of a frame is always transmitted with 1 Mbit/s, rest of
transmission 1 or 2 Mbit/s
 chipping sequence: +1, -1, +1, +1, -1, +1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1 (Barker code)
 max. radiated power 1 W (USA), 100 mW (EU), min. 1mW
Infrared
 850-950 nm, diffuse light, typ. 10 m range
 carrier detection, energy detection, synchronization

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 72

FHSS PHY packet format (legacy)
Synchronization
 synch with 010101... pattern
SFD (Start Frame Delimiter)
 0000110010111101 start pattern
PLW (PLCP_PDU Length Word)
 length of payload incl. 32 bit CRC of payload, PLW <
4096
PSF (PLCP Signaling Field)
 data of payload (1 or 2 Mbit/s)
80 16 12 4 16 variable bits
HEC (HeaderSFD
synchronization ErrorPLW
Check)
PSF HEC payload
 CRC with x16+x12+x5+1
PLCP preamble PLCP header

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 73

802.11 - MAC layer I - DFWMAC
Traffic services
 Asynchronous Data Service (mandatory)
 exchange of data packets based on “best-effort”
 support of broadcast and multicast
 Time-Bounded Service (optional)
 implemented using PCF (Point Coordination Function)
Access methods
 DFWMAC-DCF CSMA/CA (mandatory)
 collision avoidance via randomized „back-off“ mechanism
 minimum distance between consecutive packets
 ACK packet for acknowledgements (not for broadcasts)
 DFWMAC-DCF w/ RTS/CTS (optional)
 Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC
 avoids hidden terminal problem
 DFWMAC- PCF (optional)
 access point polls terminals according to a list

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 74

802.11
Priorities - MAC layer II
defined through different inter frame spaces


 no guaranteed, hard priorities

 SIFS (Short Inter Frame Spacing)
 highest priority, for ACK, CTS, polling response
 PIFS (PCF IFS)
 medium priority, for time-bounded service using PCF
 DIFS (DCF, Distributed Coordination Function IFS)
 lowest priority, for asynchronous data service

DIFS DIFS
PIFS
SIFS
medium busy contention next frame
t
direct access if
medium is free  DIFS

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 75

802.11 - CSMA/CA access method
I
station ready to send starts sensing the medium (Carrier
Sense based on CCA, Clear Channel Assessment)
if the medium is free for the duration of an Inter-Frame
Space (IFS), the station can start sending (IFS depends
on service type)
if the medium is busy, the station has to wait for a free
IFS, then the station must additionally wait a random
back-off time (collision avoidance, multiple of slot-time)
ifDIFS
another station occupies the medium duringcontention
DIFS
the back-
window
off time of the station, the back-off timer stops(randomized back-off
(fairness)
mechanism)
medium busy next frame

direct access if t
medium is free  DIFS slot time (20µs)
Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 76
Special Frames:
bytesACK,
2 2RTS,
6 CTS
4
Frame Receiver
Acknowledgement
ACK
Control
Duration
Address
CRC

bytes 2 2 6 6 4
Frame Receiver Transmitter
RTS Duration CRC
Control Address Address
Request To Send
bytes 2 2 6 4
Frame Receiver
CTS Duration CRC
Control Address

Clear To Send

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 77

802.11 - MAC management
Synchronization
 try to find a LAN, try to stay within a LAN
 timer etc.
Power management
 sleep-mode without missing a message
 periodic sleep, frame buffering, traffic measurements
Association/Reassociation
 integration into a LAN
 roaming, i.e. change networks by changing access points
 scanning, i.e. active search for a network
MIB - Management Information Base
 managing, read, write

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 78

Synchronization using a Beacon
(infrastructure)
beacon interval
(20ms – 1s)

B B B B
access
point
busy busy busy busy
medium
t
value of the timestamp B beacon frame

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 79

Synchronization using a Beacon
(ad-hoc)

beacon interval

B1 B1
station1

B2 B2
station2

busy busy busy busy

medium
t
value of the timestamp B beacon frame random delay

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 80

Power management
Idea: switch the transceiver off if not needed
States of a station: sleep and awake
Timing Synchronization Function (TSF)
 stations wake up at the same time
Infrastructure
 Traffic Indication Map (TIM)
 list of unicast receivers transmitted by AP
 Delivery Traffic Indication Map (DTIM)
 list of broadcast/multicast receivers transmitted by AP

Ad-hoc
 Ad-hoc Traffic Indication Map (ATIM)
 announcement of receivers by stations buffering frames
 more complicated - no central AP
 collision of ATIMs possible (scalability?)

APSD (Automatic Power Save Delivery)

 new method in 802.11e replacing above schemes

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 81

Power saving with wake-up
patterns (infrastructure)
TIM interval DTIM interval

D B T T d D B
access
point
busy busy busy busy
medium

p d
station
t
T TIM D DTIM awake

B broadcast/multicast p PS poll d data transmission

to/from the station

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 82

Power saving with wake-up
patterns ATIM
(ad-hoc)
window beacon interval

B1 A D B1
station1

B2 B2 a d
station2

t
B beacon frame random delay A transmit ATIM D transmit data

awake a acknowledge ATIM d acknowledge data

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 83

802.11 - Roaming
No or bad connection? Then perform:
Scanning
 scan the environment, i.e., listen into the medium for beacon signals or
send probes into the medium and wait for an answer
Reassociation Request
 station sends a request to one or several AP(s)
Reassociation Response
 success: AP has answered, station can now participate
 failure: continue scanning
AP accepts Reassociation Request
 signal the new station to the distribution system
 the distribution system updates its data base (i.e., location information)
 typically, the distribution system now informs the old AP so it can release
resources
Fast roaming – 802.11r
 e.g. for vehicle-to-roadside networks

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 84

WLAN:
Data rate IEEE 802.11b
1, 2, 5.5, 11 Mbit/s, depending on

Connection set-up time
Connectionless/always on


SNR Quality of Service

 User data rate max. approx. 6
Mbit/s
Transmission range
 300m outdoor, 30m indoor
 Max. data rate ~10m indoor
Frequency
 DSSS, 2.4 GHz ISM-band
Security
 Limited, WEP insecure, SSID
Availability
 Many products, many vendors
 Typ. Best effort, no guarantees
(unless polling is used, limited
support in products)
Manageability
 Limited (no automated key
distribution, sym. Encryption)
Special Advantages/Disadvantages
 Advantage: many installed systems,
lot of experience, available worldwide,
free ISM-band, many vendors,
integrated in laptops, simple system
 Disadvantage: heavy interference on
ISM-band, no service guarantees,
slow relative speed only

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 85

IEEE 802.11b
128 16
–8 PHY
8
frame
Long PLCP PPDU format
16 16
formats
variable bits
synchronization SFD signal service length HEC payload

PLCP preamble PLCP header

192 µs at 1 Mbit/s DBPSK 1, 2, 5.5 or 11 Mbit/s

Short PLCP PPDU format (optional)

56 16 8 8 16 16 variable bits
short synch. SFD signal service length HEC payload

PLCP preamble PLCP header

(1 Mbit/s, DBPSK) (2 Mbit/s, DQPSK)

96 µs 2, 5.5 or 11 Mbit/s

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 86

Channel selection (non-
overlapping)
Europe (ETSI)

channel 1 channel 7 channel 13

2400 2412 2442 2472 2483.5

22 MHz [MHz]
US (FCC)/Canada (IC)

channel 1 channel 6 channel 11

2400 2412 2437 2462 2483.5

22 MHz [MHz]

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 87

WLAN:
Data rate
IEEE 802.11a
6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbit/s,

Connection set-up time
Connectionless/always on

depending on SNR
 User throughput (1500 byte packets): Quality of Service
5.3 (6), 18 (24), 24 (36), 32 (54)  Typ. best effort, no guarantees (same
 6, 12, 24 Mbit/s mandatory as all 802.11 products)
Transmission range Manageability
 100m outdoor, 10m indoor  Limited (no automated key
 E.g., 54 Mbit/s up to 5 m, 48 up to 12 distribution, sym. Encryption)
m, 36 up to 25 m, 24 up to 30m, 18 up
to 40 m, 12 up to 60 m Special Advantages/Disadvantages
Frequency
 Advantage: fits into 802.x standards,
 Free 5.15-5.25, 5.25-5.35, 5.725- free ISM-band, available, simple
5.825 GHz ISM-band system, uses less crowded 5 GHz
band
Security
 Limited, WEP insecure, SSID
 Disadvantage: stronger shading due
to higher frequency, no QoS
Availability
 Some products, some vendors

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 88

IEEE 802.11a – PHY frame format
4 1 12 1 6 16 variable 6 variable bits
rate reserved length parity tail service payload tail pad

PLCP header

PLCP preamble signal data

12 1 variable symbols

6 Mbit/s 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbit/s

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 89

Operating channels of 802.11a in
Europe
36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 channel

5150 5180 5200 5220 5240 5260 5280 5300 5320 5350 [MHz]
16.6 MHz

100 104 108 112 116 120 124 128 132 136 140 channel

5470 5500 5520 5540 5560 5580 5600 5620 5640 5660 5680 5700 5725
16.6 MHz [MHz]
center frequency =
5000 + 5*channel number [MHz]

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 90

Operating channels for 802.11a /
US U-NII
36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 channel

5150 5180 5200 5220 5240 5260 5280 5300 5320 5350 [MHz]
16.6 MHz

center frequency =
5000 + 5*channel number [MHz]
149 153 157 161 channel

5725 5745 5765 5785 5805 5825 [MHz]

16.6 MHz

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 91

WLAN: IEEE 802.11 – current
developments (06/2009)
802.11c: Bridge Support
 Definition of MAC procedures to support bridges as extension to 802.1D
802.11d: Regulatory Domain Update
 Support of additional regulations related to channel selection, hopping sequences
802.11e: MAC Enhancements – QoS
 Enhance the current 802.11 MAC to expand support for applications with Quality of Service
requirements, and in the capabilities and efficiency of the protocol
 Definition of a data flow (“connection”) with parameters like rate, burst, period… supported by
HCCA (HCF (Hybrid Coordinator Function) Controlled Channel Access, optional)
 Additional energy saving mechanisms and more efficient retransmission
 EDCA (Enhanced Distributed Channel Access): high priority traffic waits less for channel access
802.11F: Inter-Access Point Protocol (withdrawn)
 Establish an Inter-Access Point Protocol for data exchange via the distribution system
802.11g: Data Rates > 20 Mbit/s at 2.4 GHz; 54 Mbit/s, OFDM
 Successful successor of 802.11b, performance loss during mixed operation with .11b
802.11h: Spectrum Managed 802.11a
 Extension for operation of 802.11a in Europe by mechanisms like channel measurement for
dynamic channel selection (DFS, Dynamic Frequency Selection) and power control (TPC,
Transmit Power Control)
802.11i: Enhanced Security Mechanisms
 Enhance the current 802.11 MAC to provide improvements in security.
 TKIP enhances the insecure WEP, but remains compatible to older WEP systems
 AES provides a secure encryption method and is based on new hardware

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 92

WLAN: IEEE 802.11– current
developments (06/2009)
802.11j: Extensions for operations in Japan
 Changes of 802.11a for operation at 5GHz in Japan using only half the channel width at
larger range
802.11-2007: Current “complete” standard
 Comprises amendments a, b, d, e, g, h, i, j
802.11k: Methods for channel measurements
 Devices and access points should be able to estimate channel quality in order to be able to
choose a better access point of channel
802.11m: Updates of the 802.11-2007 standard
802.11n: Higher data rates above 100Mbit/s
 Changes of PHY and MAC with the goal of 100Mbit/s at MAC SAP
 MIMO antennas (Multiple Input Multiple Output), up to 600Mbit/s are currently feasible
 However, still a large overhead due to protocol headers and inefficient mechanisms
802.11p: Inter car communications
 Communication between cars/road side and cars/cars
 Planned for relative speeds of min. 200km/h and ranges over 1000m
 Usage of 5.850-5.925GHz band in North America
802.11r: Faster Handover between BSS
 Secure, fast handover of a station from one AP to another within an ESS
 Current mechanisms (even newer standards like 802.11i) plus incompatible devices from
different vendors are massive problems for the use of, e.g., VoIP in WLANs
 Handover should be feasible within 50ms in order to support multimedia applications
efficiently

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 93

WLAN: IEEE 802.11– current
developments (06/2009)
802.11s: Mesh Networking
 Design of a self-configuring Wireless Distribution System (WDS) based on 802.11
 Support of point-to-point and broadcast communication across several hops
802.11T: Performance evaluation of 802.11 networks
 Standardization of performance measurement schemes
802.11u: Interworking with additional external networks
802.11v: Network management
 Extensions of current management functions, channel measurements
 Definition of a unified interface
802.11w: Securing of network control
 Classical standards like 802.11, but also 802.11i protect only data frames, not the control
frames. Thus, this standard should extend 802.11i in a way that, e.g., no control frames can be
forged.
802.11y: Extensions for the 3650-3700 MHz band in the USA
802.11z: Extension to direct link setup
802.11aa: Robust audio/video stream transport
802.11ac: Very High Throughput <6Ghz
802.11ad: Very High Throughput in 60 GHz

Note: Not all “standards” will end in products, many ideas get stuck at working group level
Info: www.ieee802.org/11/, 802wirelessworld.com, standards.ieee.org/getieee802/

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 94

Bluetooth
Basic idea
 Universal radio interface for ad-hoc wireless
connectivity
 Interconnecting computer and peripherals, handheld
devices, PDAs, cell phones – replacement of IrDA
 Embedded in other devices, goal: 5€/device
(already < 1€)
 Short range (10 m), low power consumption,
license-free 2.45 GHz ISM
 Voice and data transmission, approx. 1 Mbit/s gross
data rate

One of the first modules (Ericsson).

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 95

 (was: )
Bluetooth
History
 1994: Ericsson (Mattison/Haartsen), “MC-link” project
 Renaming of the project: Bluetooth according to Harald “Blåtand”
Gormsen [son of Gorm], King of Denmark in the 10 th century
 1998: foundation of Bluetooth SIG, www.bluetooth.org
 1999: erection of a rune stone at Ercisson/Lund ;-)
 2001: first consumer products for mass market, spec. version 1.1
released
 2005: 5 million chips/week

Special Interest Group

 Original founding members: Ericsson, Intel, IBM, Nokia, Toshiba
 Added promoters: 3Com, Agere (was: Lucent), Microsoft, Motorola
 > 10000 members
 Common specification and certification of products

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 96

History and hi-tech…

1999:
Ericsson mobile
communications AB
reste denna sten till
minne av Harald
Blåtand, som fick ge
sitt namn åt en ny
teknologi för trådlös,
mobil kommunikation.

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 97


…and the real rune stone
Located in Jelling, Denmark,
erected by King Harald “Blåtand”
in memory of his parents.
The stone has three sides – one side
showing a picture of Christ.

Inscription:
"Harald king executes these sepulchral
monuments after Gorm, his father and
Thyra, his mother. The Harald who won the
whole of Denmark and Norway and turned This could be the “original” colors
the Danes to Christianity." of the stone.
Inscription:
Btw: Blåtand means “of dark complexion” “auk tani karthi kristna” (and
(not having a blue tooth…) made the Danes Christians)

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 98

Characteristics
2.4 GHz ISM band, 79 (23) RF channels, 1 MHz carrier spacing
 Channel 0: 2402 MHz … channel 78: 2480 MHz
 G-FSK modulation, 1-100 mW transmit power
FHSS and TDD
 Frequency hopping with 1600 hops/s
 Hopping sequence in a pseudo random fashion, determined by a master
 Time division duplex for send/receive separation
Voice link – SCO (Synchronous Connection Oriented)
 FEC (forward error correction), no retransmission, 64 kbit/s duplex, point-
to-point, circuit switched
Data link – ACL (Asynchronous ConnectionLess)
 Asynchronous, fast acknowledge, point-to-multipoint, up to 433.9 kbit/s
symmetric or 723.2/57.6 kbit/s asymmetric, packet switched
Topology
 Overlapping piconets (stars) forming a scatternet

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 99

Piconet
Collection of devices connected in an ad hoc
fashion
P
S
One unit acts as master and the others as slaves
for the lifetime of the piconet S
M P
Master determines hopping pattern, slaves have
to synchronize SB S
P SB
Each piconet has a unique hopping pattern

Participation in a piconet = synchronization to

hopping sequence
M=Master P=Parked
S=Slave SB=Standby
Each piconet has one master and up to 7
simultaneous slaves (> 200 could be parked)

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0
Forming a piconet
All devices in a piconet hop together
 Master gives slaves its clock and device ID
 Hopping pattern: determined by device ID (48 bit,
unique worldwide)
 Phase in hopping pattern determined by clock
P 
Addressing
 SB  S

 Active Member
SB

Address (AMA, 3Sbit) 
 SB Parked Member Address (PMA, 8 bit) M P
 SB  SB  SB S
 SB  SB P 
SB
 SB
SB

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1
Scatternet
Linking of multiple co-located piconets through
the sharing of common master or slave
devices
 Devices can be slave in one piconet and Piconets
master
of another
P (each with a
S S capacity of
720 kbit/s)
Communication
S between piconets
P
 Devices jumping
M
back
P and forth between the
piconets M
SB S
M=Master P SB SB
S=Slave
P=Parked S
SB=Standby

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2
Bluetooth
audio apps. NW apps. protocol stack
vCal/vCard telephony apps. mgmnt. apps.

TCP/UDP OBEX
AT modem
IP
commands
TCS BIN SDP
BNEP PPP Control

RFCOMM (serial line interface)

Audio Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) Host

Controller
Link Manager Interface

Baseband

Radio

AT: attention sequence SDP: service discovery protocol

OBEX: object exchange RFCOMM: radio frequency comm.
TCS BIN: telephony control protocol specification – binary
BNEP: Bluetooth network encapsulation protocol

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Frequency selection during data
transmission
625 µs

fk fk+1 fk+2 fk+3 fk+4 fk+5 fk+6

M S M S M S M
t

fk fk+3 fk+4 fk+5 fk+6

M S M S M
t

fk fk+1 fk+6

M S M
t

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4
Baseband
Piconet/channel definition
Low-level packet definition
 Access code
 Channel, device access, e.g., derived from master
 Packet header
 1/3-FEC,
68(72) active 54 member address bits
0-2745 (broadcast + 7
slaves),
access codelink type,
packet alternating
header payload bit ARQ/SEQ,
checksum
4 64 (4) 3 4 1 1 1 8 bits
preamble sync. (trailer) AM address type flow ARQN SEQN HEC

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SCO payload types
payload (30)

HV1 audio (10) FEC (20)

HV2 audio (20) FEC (10)

HV3 audio (30)

DV audio (10) header (1) payload (0-9) 2/3 FEC CRC (2)

(bytes)

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ACLpayload
Payload(0-343) types
header (1/2) payload (0-339) CRC (2)

DM1 header (1) payload (0-17) 2/3 FEC CRC (2)

DH1 header (1) payload (0-27) CRC (2) (bytes)

DM3 header (2) payload (0-121) 2/3 FEC CRC (2)

DH3 header (2) payload (0-183) CRC (2)

DM5 header (2) payload (0-224) 2/3 FEC CRC (2)

DH5 header (2) payload (0-339) CRC (2)

AUX1 header (1) payload (0-29)

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7
Baseband data
Payload User
Header rates
Payload
Symmetric Asymmetric
max. Rate max. Rate [kbit/s]
ACL Type [byte] [byte] FEC CRC [kbit/s] Forward Reverse
DM1 1 0-17 2/3 yes 108.8 108.8 108.8
1 slot
DH1 1 0-27 no yes 172.8 172.8 172.8
DM3 2 0-121 2/3 yes 258.1 387.2 54.4
3 slot
DH3 2 0-183 no yes 390.4 585.6 86.4
DM5 2 0-224 2/3 yes 286.7 477.8 36.3
5 slot DH5 2 0-339 no yes 433.9 723.2 57.6
AUX1 1 0-29 no no 185.6 185.6 185.6
HV1 na 10 1/3 no 64.0
HV2 na 20 2/3 no 64.0
SCO HV3 na 30 no no 64.0
DV 1D 10+(0-9) D 2/3 D yes D 64.0+57.6 D

Data Medium/High rate, High-quality Voice, Data and Voice

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Baseband link types
Polling-based TDD packet transmission
 625µs slots, master polls slaves
SCO (Synchronous Connection Oriented) – Voice
 Periodic single slot packet assignment, 64 kbit/s full-duplex, point-to-point
ACL (Asynchronous ConnectionLess) – Data
 Variable packet size (1, 3, 5 slots), asymmetric bandwidth, point-to-multipoint

SCO ACL SCO ACL SCO ACL SCO ACL

MASTER f0 f4 f6 f8 f12 f14 f18 f20

SLAVE 1
f1 f7 f9 f13 f19

SLAVE 2
f5 f17 f21

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications

Robustness
Slow frequency hopping with hopping patterns determined by a master
 Protection from interference on certain frequencies
 Separation from other piconets (FH-CDMA)
Retransmission
 ACL only, very fast
Error in payload
Forward Error Correction (not header!)
 SCO and ACL
NAK ACK

MASTER A C C F H

SLAVE 1 B D E

SLAVE 2 G G

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications

Baseband states of a Bluetooth
device standby unconnected

detach inquiry page connecting

transmit connected active

AMA AMA

park hold sniff low power

PMA AMA AMA

Standby: do nothing Park: release AMA, get PMA

Inquire: search for other devices Sniff: listen periodically, not each slot
Page: connect to a specific device Hold: stop ACL, SCO still possible, possibly
Connected: participate in a piconet participate in another piconet

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 111

Example: Power
consumption/CSR BlueCore2
Typical Average Current Consumption1
 VDD=1.8V Temperature = 20°C
 Mode
 SCO connection HV3 (1s interval Sniff Mode) (Slave) 26.0 mA

SCO connection HV3 (1s interval Sniff Mode) (Master) 26.0 mA
 SCO connection HV1 (Slave) 53.0 mA

SCO connection HV1 (Master) 53.0 mA

ACL data transfer 115.2kbps UART (Master) 15.5 mA
 ACL data transfer 720kbps USB (Slave) 53.0 mA
 ACL data transfer 720kbps USB (Master) 53.0 mA
 ACL connection, Sniff Mode 40ms interval, 38.4kbps UART 4.0 mA

ACL connection, Sniff Mode 1.28s interval, 38.4kbps UART 0.5 mA

Parked Slave, 1.28s beacon interval, 38.4kbps UART 0.6 mA
 Standby Mode (Connected to host, no RF activity) 47.0 µA
 Deep Sleep Mode2 20.0 µA

Notes:
 1 Current consumption is the sum of both BC212015A and the flash.
 2 Current consumption is for the BC212015A device only.

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Example: Bluetooth/USB adapter (2002: 50€, today: some
cents if integrated)

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 113

L2CAP - Logical Link Control and
Adaptation Protocol
Simple data link protocol on top of baseband

Connection oriented, connectionless, and signaling channels

Protocol multiplexing
 RFCOMM, SDP, telephony control

Segmentation & reassembly

 Up to 64kbyte user data, 16 bit CRC used from baseband

QoS flow specification per channel

 Follows RFC 1363, specifies delay, jitter, bursts, bandwidth

Group abstraction
 Create/close group, add/remove member

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 114

L2CAP logical channels

Slave Master Slave

L2CAP L2CAP L2CAP

2 d 1 1 d d d d 1 1 d d 2
baseband baseband baseband

signalling ACL connectionless connection-oriented

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 115

L2CAP
2 packet
2 formats
Connectionless PDU
2 0-65533 bytes
length CID=2 PSM payload

Connection-oriented PDU
2 2 0-65535 bytes
length CID payload

Signalling command PDU

2 2 bytes
length CID=1 One or more commands

1 1 2 0
code ID length data

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 116

Security
PIN (1-16 byte)
User input (initialization)
Pairing PIN (1-16 byte)

Authentication key generation

E2 E2
(possibly permanent storage)

link key (128 bit) Authentication link key (128 bit)

Encryption key generation

E3 E3
(temporary storage)

encryption key (128 bit) Encryption encryption key (128 bit)

Keystream generator Keystream generator

payload key Ciphering payload key

Cipher data
Data Data

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 117

SDP – Service Discovery Protocol
Inquiry/response protocol for discovering services
 Searching for and browsing services in radio proximity
 Adapted to the highly dynamic environment
 Can be complemented by others like SLP, Jini, Salutation, …
 Defines discovery only, not the usage of services
 Caching of discovered services
 Gradual discovery

Service record format

 Information about services provided by attributes
 Attributes are composed of an 16 bit ID (name) and a value
 values may be derived from 128 bit Universally Unique Identifiers
(UUID)

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 118

Additional protocols to support
legacy protocols/apps.
RFCOMM
 Emulation of a serial port (supports a large base of legacy applications)
 Allows multiple ports over a single physical channel

Telephony Control Protocol Specification (TCS)

 Call control (setup, release)
 Group management

OBEX
 Exchange of objects, IrDA replacement

WAP
 Interacting with applications on cellular phones

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 119

Profiles Applications
Represent default solutions for a certain usage model
 Vertical slice through the protocol stack
Basis for interoperability

Protocols


Generic Access Profile

Service Discovery Application Profile
Cordless Telephony Profile
Intercom Profile
Serial Port Profile Profiles
Headset Profile Additional Profiles
Dial-up Networking Profile Advanced Audio Distribution
Fax Profile PAN
LAN Access Profile
Generic Object Exchange Profile Audio Video Remote Control
Object Push Profile Basic Printing
File Transfer Profile Basic Imaging
Synchronization Profile
Extended Service Discovery
Generic Audio Video Distribution
Hands
Mobile Computing Free
and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 12
0
Bluetooth versions
Bluetooth 1.1
 also IEEE Standard 802.15.1-2002
 initial stable commercial standard
Bluetooth 1.2
 also IEEE Standard 802.15.1-2005
 eSCO (extended SCO): higher, variable bitrates, retransmission for SCO
 AFH (adaptive frequency hopping) to avoid interference
Bluetooth 2.0 + EDR (2004, no more IEEE)
 EDR (enhanced date rate) of 3.0 Mbit/s for ACL and eSCO
 lower power consumption due to shorter duty cycle
Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR (2007)
 better pairing support, e.g. using NFC
 improved security
Bluetooth 3.0 + HS (2009)
 Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR + IEEE 802.11a/g = 54 Mbit/s

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 12

1
WPAN: IEEE 802.15.1 – Bluetooth
Data rate
 Synchronous, connection-oriented:
64 kbit/s
 Asynchronous, connectionless
 433.9 kbit/s symmetric
 723.2 / 57.6 kbit/s asymmetric
Transmission range
 POS (Personal Operating Space)
up to 10 m
 with special transceivers up to 100
m Special Advantages/Disadvantages
Frequency
 Free 2.4 GHz ISM-band
Security
 Challenge/response (SAFER+),
hopping sequence
Availability
 Integrated into many products,
several vendors
Mobile Computing and smart phone applications
Connection set-up time
 Depends on power-mode
 Max. 2.56s, avg. 0.64s
Quality of Service
 Guarantees, ARQ/FEC
Manageability
 Public/private keys needed, key
management not specified, simple
system integration
 Advantage: already integrated into
several products, available
worldwide, free ISM-band, several
vendors, simple system, simple ad-
hoc networking, peer to peer,
scatternets
 Disadvantage: interference on ISM-
band, limited range, max. 8 active
devices/network, high set-up
latency
04/11/2020 12
2
WPAN: IEEE 802.15 – future
developments 1
802.15.2: Coexistance
 Coexistence of Wireless Personal Area Networks (802.15) and Wireless
Local Area Networks (802.11), quantify the mutual interference
802.15.3: High-Rate
 Standard for high-rate (20Mbit/s or greater) WPANs, while still low-
power/low-cost
 Data Rates: 11, 22, 33, 44, 55 Mbit/s
 Quality of Service isochronous protocol
 Ad hoc peer-to-peer networking
 Security
 Low power consumption
 Low cost
 Designed to meet the demanding requirements of portable consumer
imaging and multimedia applications

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 12

3
WPAN: IEEE 802.15 – future
developments 2
Several working groups extend the 802.15.3 standard

802.15.3a: - withdrawn -
 Alternative PHY with higher data rate as extension to 802.15.3
 Applications: multimedia, picture transmission

802.15.3b:
 Enhanced interoperability of MAC
 Correction of errors and ambiguities in the standard

802.15.3c:
 Alternative PHY at 57-64 GHz
 Goal: data rates above 2 Gbit/s

Not all these working groups really create a standard, not all standards will
be found in products later …

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4
WPAN: IEEE 802.15 – future
developments 3
802.15.4: Low-Rate, Very Low-Power
 Low data rate solution with multi-month to multi-year battery life and very
low complexity
 Potential applications are sensors, interactive toys, smart badges, remote
controls, and home automation
 Data rates of 20-250 kbit/s, latency down to 15 ms
 Master-Slave or Peer-to-Peer operation
 Up to 254 devices or 64516 simpler nodes
 Support for critical latency devices, such as joysticks
 CSMA/CA channel access (data centric), slotted (beacon) or unslotted
 Automatic network establishment by the PAN coordinator
 Dynamic device addressing, flexible addressing format
 Fully handshaked protocol for transfer reliability
 Power management to ensure low power consumption
 16 channels in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, 10 channels in the 915 MHz US ISM
band and one channel in the European 868 MHz band
Basis of the ZigBee technology – www.zigbee.org

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5
ZigBee
Relation to 802.15.4 similar to Bluetooth / 802.15.1

Pushed by Chipcon (now TI), ember, freescale (Motorola),

Honeywell, Mitsubishi, Motorola, Philips, Samsung…

More than 260 members

 about 15 promoters, 133 participants, 111 adopters
 must be member to commercially use ZigBee spec

ZigBee platforms comprise

 IEEE 802.15.4 for layers 1 and 2
 ZigBee protocol stack up to the applications

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6
WPAN: IEEE 802.15 – future
developments 4
802.15.4a:
 Alternative PHY with lower data rate as extension to 802.15.4
 Properties: precise localization (< 1m precision), extremely low power consumption, longer range
 Two PHY alternatives
 UWB (Ultra Wideband): ultra short pulses, communication and localization
 CSS (Chirp Spread Spectrum): communication only

802.15.4b, c, d, e, f, g:
 Extensions, corrections, and clarifications regarding 802.15.4
 Usage of new bands, more flexible security mechanisms
 RFID, smart utility neighborhood (high scalability)

802.15.5: Mesh Networking

 Partial meshes, full meshes
 Range extension, more robustness, longer battery live

802.15.6: Body Area Networks

 Low power networks e.g. for medical or entertainment use

802.15.7: Visible Light Communication

Not all these working groups really create a standard, not all standards will be found in products later
…

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 12

7
Some more IEEE standards for
mobile communications
IEEE 802.16: Broadband Wireless Access / WirelessMAN / WiMax
 Wireless distribution system, e.g., for the last mile, alternative to DSL
 75 Mbit/s up to 50 km LOS, up to 10 km NLOS; 2-66 GHz band
 Initial standards without roaming or mobility support
 802.16e adds mobility support, allows for roaming at 150 km/h
IEEE 802.20: Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA)
 Licensed bands < 3.5 GHz, optimized for IP traffic
 Peak rate > 1 Mbit/s per user
 Different mobility classes up to 250 km/h and ranges up to 15 km
 Relation to 802.16e unclear
IEEE 802.21: Media Independent Handover Interoperability
 Standardize handover between different 802.x and/or non 802
networks
IEEE 802.22: Wireless Regional Area Networks (WRAN)
 Radio-based PHY/MAC for use by license-exempt devices on a non-
interfering basis in spectrum that is allocated to the TV Broadcast
Service

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 12

8
RF Controllers – ISM bands
Data rate Connection set-up time
 Typ. up to 115 kbit/s (serial interface)  N/A
Transmission range Quality of Service
 5-100 m, depending on power (typ.  none
10-500 mW)
Manageability
Frequency  Very simple, same as serial
 Typ. 27 (EU, US), 315 (US), 418
(EU), 426 (Japan), 433 (EU), 868
interface
(EU), 915 (US) MHz (depending on Special Advantages/Disadvantages
regulations)  Advantage: very low cost, large
Security experience, high volume
 Some products with added available
processors  Disadvantage: no QoS, crowded
Cost ISM bands (particularly 27 and
 Cheap: 10€-50€ 433 MHz), typ. no Medium
Access Control, 418 MHz
Availability experiences interference with
 Many products, many vendors TETRA

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 12

9
RFID – Radio Frequency
Identification (1)
Data rate Connection set-up time
 Transmission of ID only (e.g., 48 bit,  Depends on product/medium
64kbit, 1 Mbit) access scheme (typ. 2 ms per
 9.6 – 115 kbit/s device)
Transmission range Quality of Service
 Passive: up to 3 m  none
 Active: up to 30-100 m
 Simultaneous detection of up to, Manageability
e.g., 256 tags, scanning of, e.g., 40
 Very simple, same as serial
tags/s interface
Frequency Special Advantages/Disadvantages
 125 kHz, 13.56 MHz, 433 MHz, 2.4  Advantage: extremely low cost,
GHz, 5.8 GHz and many others large experience, high volume
Security available, no power for passive
 Application dependent, typ. no RFIDs needed, large variety of
crypt. on RFID device products, relative speeds up to
300 km/h, broad temp. range
Cost  Disadvantage: no QoS, simple
 Very cheap tags, down to 1€ denial of service, crowded ISM
(passive)
bands, typ. one-way (activation/
Availability transmission of ID)
 Many products, many vendors

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0
RFID – Radio Frequency
Identification (2)
Function
 Standard: In response to a radio interrogation signal from a
reader (base station) the RFID tags transmit their ID
 Enhanced: additionally data can be sent to the tags, different
media access schemes (collision avoidance)
Features
 No line-of sight required (compared to, e.g., laser scanners)
 RFID tags withstand difficult environmental conditions (sunlight,
cold, frost, dirt etc.)
 Products available with read/write memory, smart-card
capabilities
Categories
 Passive RFID: operating power comes from the reader over the
air which is feasible up to distances of 3 m, low price (1€)
 Active RFID: battery powered, distances up to 100 m

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 13

1
RFID – Radio Frequency
Identification (3)
Applications
 Total asset visibility: tracking of goods during manufacturing,
localization of pallets, goods etc.
 Loyalty cards: customers use RFID tags for payment at, e.g., gas
stations, collection of buying patterns
 Automated toll collection: RFIDs mounted in windshields allow
commuters to drive through toll plazas without stopping
 Others: access control, animal identification, tracking of hazardous
material, inventory control, warehouse management, ...

Local Positioning Systems

 GPS useless indoors or underground, problematic in cities with high
buildings
 RFID tags transmit signals, receivers estimate the tag location by
measuring the signal‘s time of flight

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 13

2
RFID – Radio Frequency
Identification (4)
Security
 Denial-of-Service attacks are always possible
 Interference of the wireless transmission, shielding of transceivers
 IDs via manufacturing or one time programming
 Key exchange via, e.g., RSA possible, encryption via, e.g., AES

Future Trends
 RTLS: Real-Time Locating System – big efforts to make total
asset visibility come true
 Integration of RFID technology into the manufacturing,
distribution and logistics chain
 Creation of „electronic manifests“ at item or package level
(embedded inexpensive passive RFID tags)
 3D tracking of children, patients

Mobile Computing and smart phone applications 04/11/2020 13

3
RFID – Radio Frequency
Identification (5)
Relevant Standards
 American National Standards Institute
 ANSI, www.ansi.org, www.aimglobal.org/standards/rfidstds/ANSIT6.html
 Automatic Identification and Data Capture Techniques
 JTC 1/SC 31, www.uc-council.com/sc31/home.htm,
www.aimglobal.org/standards/rfidstds/sc31.htm
 European Radiocommunications Office
 ERO, www.ero.dk, www.aimglobal.org/standards/rfidstds/ERO.htm
 European Telecommunications Standards Institute
 ETSI, www.etsi.org, www.aimglobal.org/standards/rfidstds/ETSI.htm
 Identification Cards and related devices
 JTC 1/SC 17, www.sc17.com, www.aimglobal.org/standards/rfidstds/sc17.htm,
 Identification and communication
 ISO TC 104 / SC 4, www.autoid.org/tc104_sc4_wg2.htm,
www.aimglobal.org/standards/rfidstds/TC104.htm
 Road Transport and Traffic Telematics
 CEN TC 278, www.nni.nl, www.aimglobal.org/standards/rfidstds/CENTC278.htm
 Transport Information and Control Systems
 ISO/TC204, www.sae.org/technicalcommittees/gits.htm,
www.aimglobal.org/standards/rfidstds/ISOTC204.htm

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RFID – Radio Frequency
Identification (6)
ISO Standards
 ISO 15418
 MH10.8.2 Data Identifiers
 EAN.UCC Application Identifiers
 ISO 15434 - Syntax for High Capacity ADC Media
 ISO 15962 - Transfer Syntax
 ISO 18000
 Part 2, 125-135 kHz
 Part 3, 13.56 MHz
 Part 4, 2.45 GHz
 Part 5, 5.8 GHz
 Part 6, UHF (860-930 MHz, 433 MHz)
 ISO 18047 - RFID Device Conformance Test Methods
 ISO 18046 - RF Tag and Interrogator Performance Test Methods

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ISM band interference OLD

Many sources of interference

 Microwave ovens, microwave lighting
 802.11, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.15, … NEW
 Even analog TV transmission, surveillance
 Unlicensed metropolitan area networks
 …

Levels of interference
 Physical layer: interference acts like noise
 Spread spectrum tries to minimize this © Fusion Lighting, Inc.,
now used by LG as
 FEC/interleaving tries to correct Plasma Lighting System
 MAC layer: algorithms not harmonized
 E.g., Bluetooth might confuse 802.11

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 802.11 vs.(?) 802.15/Bluetooth
f [MHz] Bluetooth may act like a rogue member of the 802.11 network
2480  Does not know anything about gaps, inter frame spacing etc. 802.11b
3 channels
DIFS

SIFS

DIFS
ACK
1000 byte
(separated by
installation)

DIFS
DIFS

SIFS

SIFS

DIFS
ACK

ACK
500 byte 500 byte 500 byte
802.15.1
79 channels
DIFS

DIFS
SIFS

DIFS

SIFS

DIFS

SIFS

SIFS

DIFS

SIFS
100 100 100 100 100
ACK

ACK

ACK
ACK

ACK
byte byte byte byte byte (separated by
2402 hopping pattern)
t
IEEE 802.15-2 discusses these problems
 Proposal: Adaptive Frequency Hopping
 a non-collaborative Coexistence Mechanism

Real effects? Many different opinions, publications, tests, formulae, …

 Results from complete breakdown to almost no effect
 Bluetooth (FHSS) seems more robust than 802.11b (DSSS)

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Wireless IEEE 802.11
Traditional
Bluetooth
Infrared

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The WiMAX Possibility

Wireless & Mobile Broadband at 10-30 miles range

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