METHODS OF PROOF

Terminology
• A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true (via a proof)
• A proof is a sequence of statements that form an argument
• Axioms are statements taken to be self evident or assumed to be true
• A lemma (plural lemmas or lemmata) is a theorem useful within the
proof of a theorem
• A corollary is a theorem that can be established from theorem that
has just been proven
• A proposition is usually a ‘less’ important theorem
• A conjecture is a statement whose truth value is unknown
• The rules of inference are the means used to draw conclusions from
other assertions, and to derive an argument or a proof
Proofs
• A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a
mathematical statement

• A proof can use the hypotheses of the theorem,

• if any, axioms assumed to be true, and previously
proven

• A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true (via a proof)

• Axioms are statements taken to be self evident or assumed to be true
Rules of Inference
Visualization of Proofs
Inference Rules - General Form
Inference Rules & Implications
Some Inference Rules
Proofs
• Using these ingredients and rules of inference, the final
step of the proof establishes
• the truth of the statement being proved.

• Formal proofs
• statements involving propositions and quantified statements are
true
• All steps were supplied, and the rules for each step in the argument
were given.
• Informal proofs
• more than one rule of inference may be used in each step,
• where steps may be skipped,
• where the axioms being assumed
 10

Proof methods
1. Direct proofs
2. Indirect proofs
1. Proof by contradiction
2. Proof by contraposition
 11

Direct proofs
• Consider an implication: p→q
• If p is true, then the implication is always true
• Thus, show that if p is true, then q is true

• To perform a direct proof,

• 1. assume that p is true, and
• 2. use p to show that q must be true
 15

Indirect proofs: Proof by contrapositive

• Contrapositive
Conditional proposition of the form
• 'if not B then not A' (the contrapositive of 'if A then B')
contrapositive
 18

Indirect proofs: Proof by contrapositive

• Consider an implication: p→q
• It’s contrapositive is ¬q→¬p
• Is logically equivalent to the original implication!
• If the antecedent (¬q) is false, then the contrapositive is always
true
• Thus, show that if ¬q is true, then ¬p is true

• To perform an indirect proof, do a direct proof on the

contrapositive
 23

Proof by contradiction
• Contradiction
• (logic) a statement that is necessarily false
• "the statement 'he is brave and he is not brave' is a contradiction“

• Given a statement p, assume it is false

• Assume ¬p

• Prove that ¬p cannot occur

• A contradiction exists

• Given a statement of the form p→q

• To assume it’s false, you only have to consider the case where p is
true and q is false
Proof by contradiction
 25

Proof by contradiction example

• Prove that if n is an integer and n 3+5 is odd, then n is even
• Rephrased: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even
• Thus, p is “n3+5” is odd, q is “n is even”
• Assume p and q
• Assume that n3+5 is odd, and n is odd
• Since n is odd:
• n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
• n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
• As n = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, n must be even
• Thus, we have concluded q
• Contradiction!
• We assumed q was false, and showed that this assumption implies that q must be
true
• As q cannot be both true and false, we have reached our contradiction
Example