Pressure Altimeter
Chapter
Pressure Instruments
Pitot Static Probes and ADC.
Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ).
Mach Meter.
Pressure Altimeter.
Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI ).
Gyroscopic Instruments
Direction Gyro Indicator ( DGI ).
Artificial Horizon ( AH ).
Turn And Slip Indicator.
Miscellaneous Systems
Inertial Navigation System ( INS ).
Temperature Indicators.
Flight Data Recorders ( FDR ).
Angle Of Attack Indicators.
Flight Management System And Autopilots ( FMS ).
Pitot Static Instruments
Pressure Altimeter Introduction
The Pressure Altimeter is basically an Aneroid Barometer.
An Aneroid Barometer is used to measure the ambient Atmospheric pressure or Static pressure.
This pressure measurement is then used to display aircraft altitude.
The Altimeter is calibrated for ISA conditions.
Pressure Altimeter
The following is a summary of the operation of the Pressure Altimeter
The Pressure Altimeter measures the ambient Atmospheric pressure or Static pressure.
The Static pressure is measured by the Static port or vent and is fed into the airtight case of the instrument.
The Pressure Altimeter has a partially evacuated capsule supported by a leaf spring inside the case.
As the aircraft climbs the Static pressure decreases and the capsule will expand.
As the aircraft descends the Static pressure will increase causing the capsule to contract.
A Bi- Metallic strip is incorporated into the suitable linkages to compensate for the expansion or contraction of
the linkages with temperature changes.
Pressure Altimeter Construction
Sealed Case
Static Vent
Altimeter Scale
Capsule
Linkages
Baro Correction
Central Air Data Computers ( CADC ) or Air Data Computers ( ADC ) are used in jet aircraft.
One ( CADC ) for the captain’s flight instruments and the second computer for the first officer’s flight
instruments.
These computers convert mechanical energy from the Pitot and Static vents to an electrical equivalent by
means of transducers and supply the information to the Airspeed Indicator, Mach Meter, Vertical Speed
Indicator and the Altimeter.
The advantage of the ADC is that there are no mechanical linkages thus reducing errors to a minimum.
What is important in the next diagram is to note the inputs to and outputs from the ADC.
Air Data Computer ( ADC )
Static Defect
Correction
Static
Altitude
Pressure
Static Vertical Speed
Transducer
Pressure
Density Density
28 Volts DC
Altitude Altitude Hold
Memory
Mach Mach Number
Number
Dynamic
Pressure Indicated Airspeed
Dynamic
Transducer
Pressure
True Airspeed
True Airspeed
Subscale Adjustment
Altimeter ( ALT ) Errors
Instrument Error :
These errors are caused by imperfections during manufacture and wear and tear of the instrument.
There is another consideration, and that is the rate of pressure change of the atmosphere with an increase in
altitude and is assumed to be constant.
As this assumption is not true the altimeter will be unreliable at higher altitudes.
During a rapid climb the Altimeter lags and therefore under reads.
During a rapid descent the Altimeter lags and therefore over reads.
Barometric Error :
The Altimeter is calibrated according to ISA conditions for atmospheric pressure.
If there is a deviation from the ISA pressure conditions an error will occur in the Altimeter indications.
The pressure error can be corrected for by means of the barometric correction scale.
Temperature Error :
The Altimeter is calibrated according to ISA conditions for atmospheric temperature.
If there is a deviation from the ISA temperature conditions an error will occur in the Altimeter.
The error is small at lower altitudes but significant at higher altitudes.
This error can be corrected by the altitude window on a navigation computer.
Servo Assisted Altimeter
The Servo Assisted Altimeter solves most of the problems found in the Pressure Altimeter.
The Pressure capsules are retained but their information is measured electronically by means of E and I
bars.
A motor drives the pointers and altitude drums which improves accuracy and virtually eliminates time lag
errors.
Subscale Adjustment
E and I Bar Theory
The transducer component of a Servo Assisted Altimeter consists of an E bar and an I Bar.
An Alternating Current is fed to the primary coil on the centre leg of the E bar.
Equal magnetic flux flows are produced due to the equal air gap between the E and I bars ( Level Flight ).
Equal but opposite voltages are produced in the secondary coils of the outer legs of the E bar.
This results in no output voltage.
No Output to Secondary Coil
Motor Drive
Voltage
Amp
Counters
Pointer Motor
Output
Voltage
Cam Follower
Gear Train
Cam
Mb
Scale Worm Gear
Capsules
Anvil
Servo Assisted Altimeter Summary
As the aircraft climbs or descends the Capsules expand or contract as the Static atmospheric pressure changes.
The Capsules move the I bar thus changing the air gap between the E and I bar.
This change in air gap causes an output voltage from the outer legs of the E bar which is sent to the amplifier.
The amplifier determines the polarity of the output voltage and drives the motor in the correct direction depending
on whether the aircraft is climbing or descending.
The motor, through the Gear Train, drives the altitude counters and the altitude pointer.
The motor, through the Gear Train, also turns the Worm Gear.
The Worm Gear drives the Cam.
The Cam drives the Cam Follower.
The Cam Follower moves the E bar to the null position.
In the null position the air gap between the E and I bar is the same.
No output voltage is produced and the whole operation stops at the aircraft altitude.
Servo Assisted Altimeter Summary
Barometric Adjustment.
To adjust the Altimeter for deviation in ISA pressure conditions the Baro correction is used.
If one increases the QNH value in the subscale the altimeter will indicate higher and the converse is true.
Turning the Baro correction drives the millibar scale through the Gear Train on the adjustment shaft.
Turning the Baro correction will also adjust the Anvil, either lengthening or shortening the shaft.
The Anvil will move the Adjustment Lever.
The Adjustment Lever will move the Worm Gear left or right from its null position.
The movement of the Worm Gear will move the Cam.
The Cam will move the Cam Follower.
Moving the Cam Follower will move the E bar with respect to the I bar.
This change in air gap causes an output voltage from the outer legs of the E bar which is sent to the amplifier.
The amplifier determines the polarity of the output voltage and drives the motor in the correct direction depending
on which way the Baro correction was turned.
The motor, through the Gear Train, drives the altitude counters and the altitude pointer.
The motor, through the Gear Train, also turns the Worm Gear.
The Worm Gear drives the Cam.
The Cam drives the Cam Follower.
The Cam Follower moves the E bar to the null position.
In the null position the air gap between the E and I bar is the same.
Altitude and Pressure Relationship
As the aircraft flies from a high pressure area to a low pressure area the atmosphere becomes less dense.
The Altimeter capsules sense this drop in pressure.
As the pressure drops the Altimeter capsules start to expand.
The expansion of the capsules is indicated as an increase in altitude.
The pilot tries to maintain his assigned altitude and thus starts to descend the aircraft.
The aircraft is thus moving closer to the ground for a constant assigned or maintained altitude.
The altimeter over reads.
Altitude and Pressure Relationship
The aircraft flies from a high temperature area to a low temperature area at a constant Pressure.
One must remember the QNH setting on the altimeter is a function of pressure at the aircraft reduced to
sea level by means of a formula 1 Mb per 30 Feet assuming ISA pressure gradient.
In warm air, because of its lower density, the aircraft will have to be higher to obtain the same pressure
difference in Mb from sea level. The altimeter under reads.
In cold air, because of its high density the displacement of the aircraft for the same Mb change will be less
and the aircraft will be lower to the ground. The altimeter is over reading.
Altitude Definitions
QNH:
This is the mean sea level pressure calculated from the airfield pressure reduced to sea level using the ISA
formula.
The formula is 1Millibar change for every 30 Feet.
When QNH is set in the altimeter, the reading on the instrument is called an Altitude above mean sea level
( AMSL ).
Airfield Pressure
860 Mb
Airfield Elevation
5010 Feet
QNH is 1027 Mb
Mean Sea Level
Altitude Definitions
QFE:
This is the barometric pressure at the airfield as measured by an Aneroid Barometer.
When the airfield pressure is set in the altimeter subscale the altimeter will read height above this
reference.
When QFE is set in the altimeter subscale the altimeter measures height above the airfield elevation.
Airfield Pressure
860 Mb
Airfield Elevation
5010 Feet
QNH is 1027 Mb
Mean Sea Level
Altitude Definitions
QNE:
This is the barometric pressure at the ISA reference point of 1013.25 Mb.
When the QNE is set in the altimeter subscale the altimeter will read the following:
Flight Level i.e. FL 090.
Pressure Altitude i.e. 9000 Feet.
When QNE is set the altimeter reads altitude above the ISA reference level.
Airfield Pressure
860 Mb
Airfield Elevation
5010 Feet
ISA Reference
1013.25 Mb
QNH is 1027 Mb
Mean Sea Level
ISA Temperature Calculation
Lets consider this problem :
To calculate an ISA temperature given the following :
What is the ISA temperature at FL 350?
-55°c
55 degree temperature Drop
Example No 1.
Airport elevation is 4517 feet, the QNH is 1006.8 hPa and the temperature is 22° Celsius. What is the density
altitude of the airfield?
Step 1.
Correct the pressure deviation from ISA. ISA is 1013.25Mb, for every Mb deviation the atmosphere deviation
is 30 feet. If one turns the Mb subscale on the altimeter clockwise to increase the QNH the altitude will increase
and conversely if the Mb subscale is turned anti-clockwise to reduce the QNH the altimeter will decrease.
Step 2
Correct the temperature deviation from ISA. For every 1° Celsius deviation from ISA there is a 120 feet
altitude error. If the temperature is higher then the atmosphere is thinner and the converse is true.
4710.4 feet pressure alt 1970.4 feet deviation 6681 feet density alt
Altitude Alerting System
The Altitude Alerting System is coupled electronically to the Altimeter System.
The system provides an audio and visual warning to the pilots when the aircraft is approaching a selected
altitude.
The warning light remains illuminated until 200 feet before reaching the selected level.
The system also provides an audio and visual warning if the aircraft deviates above or below the selected
altitude by more than 200 feet.
Alert
200 Feet Above Selected Altitude
In commercial aircraft the transponder is supplied with altitude information from an Altitude Encoding Altimeter.
In an Altitude Encoding Altimeter an encoding glass disk is driven by the Altimeter Transmission System.
The glass disk is encoded with a binary system that corresponds to the aircraft Pressure Altitude.
A lamp illuminates the glass disk and the information is read by a photo - electric cell.
Set QNE
1013.25 Mb
Set QNE
Transition Altitude 1013.25 Mb
Transition Altitude
JNB DBN
Transition Level
The Transition Level is the lowest Flight Level available for the use above the Transition Altitude.
Vertical position of the aircraft is expressed in Flight Levels.
The Transition Level is usually 2000 Feet above the highest obstacle.
The Transition Level is given by the ATIS or ATC.
When descending the QNH is set at the Transition Level.
Transition Altitude
Set QNE
JNB 1013.25 Mb
DBN
Semi – Circular Flight Levels
In South Africa no VFR flights are allowed above 20000 Feet.
Flight Levels are assigned by means of the aircraft Magnetic Track.
In non RVSM airspace Flight Levels ensure 2000 feet separation between opposite direction traffic.
VFR IFR
Flight Levels Flight Levels
359° 359°
000° 000°
Even
Even Thousands
Odd Odd
Thousands FL 280
Thousands Thousands
+ 500 Feet to FL 285 then
+ 500 Feet to FL 275 FL 290
then
then then
FL 280
FL 285 FL 290
FL 275
FL 310
FL 320 FL 330
FL 300
FL 350
FL 360 FL 370
FL 340
FL 390
FL 400 FL 410
FL 380
180° 180°
179° 179°
Altimeter Calculations
Using the formula 1Mb equal 30 Feet, convert altimeter settings so that all the units are the same.
Note that when the barometric value increases the altimeter will indicate higher.
Note that when the barometric value decreases the altimeter will indicate lower.
Altimeter Calculation No 1
An aircraft heading 003° magnetic and has 10° of left drift. The aircraft has to pass over high ground
that is 2200 meters AMSL. Minimum clearance over high ground is 2000 Feet. Spot QNH is 1025 Mb.
What is the lowest IFR flight level the aircraft must maintain?
Corrected
Altitude
6865 Feet Sea Level
Altimeter Calculation No 2
En route at Flight Level 270, the altimeter is set correctly. On the descent the pilot fails to reset the
altimeter to QNH 1026.1 Mb. If the airfield elevation is 1300 Feet, what will the altimeter indicate after
landing?
If the altimeter was correctly set at 1026.1 Mb before landing it would read 1300 Feet after landing.
However, 1013.25 Mb is set, as the aircraft is at Flight Level 270.
QNH 1026.1
1300 Feet
Sea Level
Altimeter Calculation No 3
An aircraft leaves airfield Y, airfield pressure 960 Mb, and the altimeter reads airfield elevation of 1860
Feet. The aircraft lands at airfield Z, elevation 1000 Feet, where the altimeter reads 1270 Feet. What is
the QNH at Z?
Y
Z
1860 Feet
1000 Feet
QFE 960 Mb 62 Mb
Change
QNH 1013 Mb
QNH 1022 Mb
Sea Level
Altimeter Calculation No 4
An aircraft leaves an airfield X, elevation 510 Feet, with the QFE 999 Mb set on the altimeter, en route
to airfield Y, which is 510 Nm from X. The QNH at Y is 1025 Mb. A spot height of 450 meters is 114
Nm from airfield X is cleared by 2000 Feet. What is the altimeter reading over the spot height?
Difference in Pressure 1025 Mb - 1016 Mb
Difference in Pressure 9 Mb
QFE
999 Mb Difference in Pressure per Nm 9 Mb 510 Nm
QNH 1018 Mb
QNH 1016 Mb
Sea Level
114 Nm
510 Nm
Altimeter Calculation No 4
An aircraft leaves an airfield X, elevation 510 Feet, with the QFE 999 Mb set on the altimeter, en route
to airfield Y, which is 510 Nm from X. The QNH at Y is 1025 Mb. A spot height of 450 meters is 114
Nm from airfield X is cleared by 2000 Feet. What is the altimeter reading over the spot height?
Z
X 450 Meters
1476 Feet Y
510 Feet
QNH 1018 Mb QNH 1025 Mb
QFE 999 Mb
Change
17 Mb
Corrected
QNH 1016 Mb Altitude
906 Feet Sea Level
114 Nm
510 Nm
Altimeter Calculation No 5
During a preflight check the following details were noted. Airfield elevation was 5000 Feet, apron
elevation was 4980 Feet, height of the Static Vent above the ground was 25 Feet, the altimeter was
reading 45 Feet with the airfield QFE set in the subscale. What is the instrument error?
QFE Set
5 Feet
20 Feet 25 Feet
Airfield Elevation
5000 Feet Apron Elevation
QFE 4980 Feet
Sea Level
Altimeter Calculation No 6
The following data is given
Pressure altitude is 8000 Feet.
QNH altitude is 7500 Feet.
OAT is 30° C.
Terrain elevation is 5700 Feet.
What is the Absolute Altitude?