PULSE CODE MODULATION

&
DELTA MODULATION SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
Quantization
Types of Quantization
Pulse Code Modulation
Companding
Delta Modulation
Adaptive Delta Modulation
Differential Pulse Code Modulation
Comparison of Digital Pulse Modulation
Matched filter detection
T-1 Carrier
Quantization
Quantization is the process of converting a continuous
range of values into a finite range of discreet values.
Quantization is required to convert the analog signal to a
PCM code with a limited number of combinations.
This is a function of analog-to-digital converters.
Contd…
Sampling results in a series of pulses of varying
amplitude values ranging between two limits: a min and a
max.
The amplitude values are infinite between the two limits.
In quantization the total amplitude range is divided in to a
number of standard levels.
Contd…
This is achieved by dividing the distance between min
and max into L levels, each of magnitude 
 = (max - min)/L
The spacing between two adjacent level is known as
quantum or step-size.
The quality of quantizer output depends on the number of
quantization level used.
QUANTIZATION PROCESS
Types of Quantization
Uniform Quantization: In the quantization levels are
uniformly spaced termed as “Uniform Quantization”.
Non-uniform Quantization: In which quantization the
quantization levels are unequal, is termed as “Non-
uniform Quantization”.
Types of quantization: (a) Midtread and
(b) Midrise
Pulse Code Modulation
PCM is a method of converting an analog signal into a
digital signal. (A/D conversion)
The amplitude of Analog signal can take any value over a
continuous range i.e. it can take on an infinite values.
Digital signal amplitude can take on finite values.
Analog signal can be converted into digital by sampling
and quantizing.
Contd…
A message signal is represented by a sequence of
coded pulses, which is accomplished by representing
the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude
Basic operations in transmitter are :
sampling, quantizing and encoding
Basic operations in receiver are :
regeneration, decoding and reconstruction
BASIC ELEMENTS OF PCM SYSTEM
Bandwidth & Bit rate for PCM
The bit rate of a PCM signal can be calculated form the
number of bits per sample x the sampling rate
Bit rate = nb x fs
The bandwidth required to transmit this signal depends on
the type of line encoding used.
For B Hz signal we need B Hz channel BW
2B samples/sec “ ” B Hz “ “
2 bps ………… 1 Hz ………
Noise in PCM
Two major noise sources in PCM systems
(Message-independent) Channel noise
(Message-dependent) Quantization noise
The quantization noise is often under designer’s control,
and can be made negligible a by taking adequate number
of quantization levels.
Channel Noise
The main effect of channel noise is to introduce bit errors.
 Notably, the symbol error rate is quite different from the bit
error rate.

A symbol error may be caused by one-bit error, or two bit

error, or three-bit error, or …; so in general, one cannot derive
the symbol error rate from the bit error rate (or vice versa)
unless some special assumption is made.
Considering the reconstruction of original analog signal, a bit
error in the most significant bit is more harmful than a bit
error in the least significant bit.
Quantization Noise
When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error - the coded
signal is an approximation of the actual amplitude value.

The difference between actual and coded value (midpoint) is

referred to as the quantization error.

The more levels, the smaller  which results in smaller

errors.

BUT, the more levels the more bits required to encode the
samples means higher bit rate.
Contd…
Signals with lower amplitude values will suffer more from
quantization error as the error range: /2, is fixed for all signal levels.

Non linear quantization is used to alleviate this problem. Goal is to

keep SNQR fixed for all sample values.

Two approaches:
 The quantization levels follow a logarithmic curve. Smaller ’s at lower
amplitudes and larger’s at higher amplitudes.

 Companding: The sample values are compressed at the sender into

logarithmic zones, and then expanded at the receiver. The zones are fixed
in height.
Noise Calculation in PCM
Quantization Noise Calculation :
Consider, m be the input to the quantizer from a variable set M and
after quantization it produces a discrete random variable v and the
quantization error is given by q. i.e.,
q = m-v.
if we consider, m is a sample value of zero mean random variable M
of continuous amplitude and v is a sample from a set of random
variables V and also the quantizer is assumed to be symmetric, the it
follows that the quantization error variable Q(will
mmax , mhave zero mean.
max )
if , m is having a value in the range and the no of levels is L
. Then step size of quantizer is given
2mmaxby

L
Contd…
For a uniform quantizer, the quantization error Q will have its sample
values bounded by   / 2  q   / 2. If the step size is sufficiently small
(L is having large value) , then its reasonable to assume that the
quantization error Q is a uniformly distributed random variable. So
we may express the probability density function of Q as
1  
f Q (q)  ,  q 
 otherwise
2 2
now having 0the, mean of the quantization error being zero, its
variance is the same as the mean square value

Q
2
 E[Q 2 ]

2
  
q 2 f Q ( q ) dq

2
Contd… f Q (q )
substituting in the previous expression we have
/2
1
Q q
2
 2
dq
  / 2

2

12
SNR in PCM
SNR Calculation:
if R denotes the no of bits per sample then we can write
R
L = or R = log2 L 2
2mmax

so we have 2R
which
1 in turn produces
  mmax 2  2 R
2
Q
2

Let, P denote the average power of the message signal m(t).

Then we can express SNR as P
( SNR) o 
 Q2
3P
( 2
) 2 2R

mmax
Implication of SNR in PCM
The SNR expression shows that the output SNR of the
quantizer increases exponentially with the increase in no
of bits per sample. But, increase in the no of bits requires
a proportionate increase in the channel bandwidth.
Probability of Error in PCM System
The average probability of error is defined as

If two signals are transmitted equally likely, i.e.,

then the average probability of error is given by

Contd…
For the on-off signaling, the matched filter, the sampling
time T, and the threshold
Companding
Companding is the process of compressing and
expanding.
Companding is used to improve dynamic range.
Compression is used on the transmitting end and
expansion is used on the receiving end.
The popular compression laws used in practice are μ law
and A law.
μ- Law Companding
μ- Law is a companding scheme used in telephone network to
get more dynamics to the 8 bit samples that is available with
linear coding.

Vmax = maximum uncompressed analog input amplitude (volts)

Vin = amplitude of the input signal at particular instant of time
(volts)
μ = parameter used to define the amount of compression
(unitless)
Vout = compressed output amplitude (volts)
μ- Law Companding Characteristics
A- Law Companding
Compression characteristic for A- law companding is
A- Law Companding Characteristics
Delta Modulation
With conventional PCM, each code is a binary
representation of both the sign and the magnitude of a
particular sample. Therefore, multiple-bit codes are
required to represent the many values that the sample can
be.
With delta modulation, rather than transmit a coded
representation of the sample, only a single bit is
transmitted, which simply indicates whether that sample is
larger or smaller than the previous sample.
Contd…
This scheme sends only the difference between pulses, if the pulse
at time tn+1 is higher in amplitude value than the pulse at time t n,
then a single bit, say a “1”, is used to indicate the positive value.

If the pulse is lower in value, resulting in a negative value, a “0” is

used.

This scheme works well for small changes in signal values

between samples.

If changes in amplitude are large, this will result in large errors.
Delta modulated wave
Contd…
Important to note:

Delta-modulation rule: smaller δ⇒smaller T, larger

δ⇒larger T
Contd…
Contd…
DM system: (a) Transmitter and (b) Receiver
Drawbacks of DM
Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM)
Adaptive delta modulation is a delta modulation system
where the step size of the DAC is automatically varied,
depending on the amplitude characteristics of the analog
input signal.
ADM Transmitter
Contd…
The logic for step size control is added in the diagram.
The step size increases or decreases according to a
specified rule depending on one bit quantizer output.
For an example, if one bit quantizer output is high (i.e.,
1), then step size may be doubled for next sample.
If one bit quantizer output is low, then step size may be
reduced by one step.
Waveform of Adaptive Delta
Modulation
ADM Receiver
Contd…
The receiver has two portions. The first portion produces
the step size from each incoming bit. Exactly the same
process is followed as that in transmitter.
The previous input and present input decide the step size.
It is then applied to the second portion i.e., an
accumulator which builds up staircase waveform.
The low pass filter then smoothens out the staircase
waveform to reconstruct the original signal.
Differential Pulse Code Modulation
Differential pulse code modulation is a technique of
analog to digital signal conversion.
Usually PCM has the sampling rate higher than the
nyquist rate, because of that the encoded signal contains
redundant information.
DPCM can efficiently remove this redundancy.
DPCM System: (a)Transmitter
(b) Receiver
Processing Gain of DPCM
Comparison of Digital Pulse Modulation
Matched filter detection
Let us assume that the ideal received signal over the
interval (0, T ) is 0 when the digit 0 is transmitted, and f
(t) when 1 is transmitted.
If there is white Gaussian noise added to the received
waveform:
x(t) = n(t) signal absent
x(t) = f (t) + n(t) signal présent.
Contd…
The best detector in this case is the matched filter
receiver.
The matched filter can be viewed as a linear convolution
of the input signal, followed by a sampling at the required
time instant:
T-1 Carrier
T1 carrier systems were designed to combine PCM and
TDM techniques for the transmission purpose.
A T-1 line generally includes 24 separate channels.
Each of which is able to support 64 Kbps.
T1 Signaling
Initially, 8th bit of every channel was used for signaling.
Now, every 6th frame, the 8th bit of each channel is used for signaling.
Net rate = (8 × 5+7)/(125 × 6) = 62.66 kbps
For digital data service, 24th channel is used for sync byte which
allows faster and more reliable frame resynchronization. 8th bit in
each of the 23 channels indicates whether the data is user’s or system
control.
8th bit is not reliable.
=>Use only 7 bits per frame =>56 kbps
For mixture of voice and data, all 24 channels can be used. No sync
bytes.
T1 Frame