ETHICS

Ethics Case Study – Honesty and Integrity

Jayanth is a son-in-law of a local MLA and is now posted as block development
officer in his father-in-law’s constituency. He comes to know  that MLA’s
followers, who are mainly small contractors and many elected members of Gram
Panchayat, are hand in glove with local Panchayat officials in misusing
MGNREGA funds. He finds that each Panchayat secretary along with elected
members have used machines to complete many works under the scheme and
siphoned off funds using fake job cards. He also finds out that all this was done
at the behest of his father-in-law, the local MLA. Now, the state government has
taken cognizance of the issue after a media report and has ordered inquiry into
the scam.

Jayanth has to probe the matter and file a report to higher authorities. His
father-in-law is pressurizing him to file a false report as he himself is under
pressure from his followers, who if found guilty will be slapped with a criminal
case. Some contractors have contacted and requested him to not to mention
their names in the report in return for a hefty bribe. Some Panchayat secretaries
have requested him to spare them as according to them Panchayat members
had coerced them into becoming partners in crime. Jayanth is recently married
and it is his first government job.
What should be his course of
action?
Ethics as Philosophy
Philosophy is defined as the hypothetical interpretation
of the unknown.
It is synthetic interpretation.
It gives us wisdom.
• Philosophy includes wisdom of following fields:
a) Logic
b) Aesthetic
c) Politics
d) Metaphysics
Logic: logic is the study of ideal methods of arguments,
thought and analysis. The area in logic includes observation,
induction, deduction, inferences, syllogism and rules of
reasoning.
Induction logic is based on empirical observations from which
certain inferences are drawn.
Deduction logic makes use of inference from the inductive logic
and deduce generalization from universal facts to a particular
case.
Syllogism: it consist of a trio of prepositions in which the third
(conclusion) follow from the relational truth of two other
prepositions.
Aesthetic :- it is the study of ideal form and conduct. It is
sometimes regarded as study of beauty and art.
Politics:- Politics is the study of ideal form of government
and social institutions and organizations.
Metaphysics :- it is the study of ultimate reality and the
interrelation between mind and matters.
The nature of being (ontology) and the process of
perception and knowledge (epistemology) are subject
matter of metaphysics.
Metaphysics is a complex analysis of matter, motion space
and time element.
Ethics
Term ethics is derived from Greek word “Ethikos”, “Ethos”
meaning conduct , custom , habits. These meaning are
quite similar to the meaning of a Latin word “mores”.
Therefore ethics is regarded as the science of morality or
simply, ethics is moral philosophy which deals with moral
conducts, judgment, Habits, characters, rules or principles.
“Ethics is study of what is right or good human conducts.”
“Ethics is the science of ideal involved in human life.”
“Ethics is the science of moral judgment.”
“Ethics is the science of morals in human conducts.”
“Ethics is the study of the general nature of morals and of
specific moral choices.”
Branches Of Ethics
There are five divisions of ethics.
Applied Ethics : it tells us how a moral outcome can be achieved.
It is concerned with the practical application of the doctrine of
morality.
Normative Ethics: it studies the determination of correct moral
standard or norm.
Descriptive Ethics: it deals with the moral values that people in
the a society try to abide by.
Meta Ethics : it analyses the true value of ethics related
prepositions and practices.
Modern Ethics: it concentrates on the deontological and
consequential aspects of moral development and human behavior.
Distinction Between Morality And Ethics
S.No. Morality
1 It prescribe right conduct for
everyone.
2 Absolute and not changeable
3 Individual disposition
4 Nomo logical in origin
5 Handed over from generation
to generation; primordial in
origin.
6 It is prescriptive.
Ethics
Right code of behavior for group or
profession
Subject to change and relative in
nature
Applied in social system. Group or
profession.
Arises out of specific recommendations
of conduct in particular profession
It is developed and goes on evolving
It is recommended to be followed in
profession
Who sets Moral Standards?
Tradition and conventions and inter-generational
practices.
Institutions – religion, social, educational
Nomological axioms
Knowledge, wisdom, experience
Family and friends
Difference Between Moral And Meta Moral
(Non Moral) Standards
Moral Standards
It is based on some concepts of morality
Primordial in origin. Not given by
authorities but steeped in religion and
nomological axioms.
It is idealized and normative.
It is neutral, impartial and universal
Needs some inclination to follow
morality
It is superior to meta moral standards
Has some obligations to observe/ obey
the standards
It is a type of individual disposition.
Its non-observance hurts and injures
your sentiments.
Meta Moral Standards
It does not have to be so.
It is not so. It is formulated by an
agency or person.
It is practical and pragmatic.
It is relative in character
It is practice oriented.
Since it is man made it is vulnerable
and hence does not extract respect.
No such obligation.
Based on accepted rules
No such sentiment.
Kohlberg Analysis Of Moral
Development
In 1950, Kohlberg made an extensive longitudinal and cross
sectional study for a period of 20 years to precisely analyses
the pattern of moral development among the American
males. According to him there are three broad levels of
morality development. Each level can be further divided
into two stages.
Level one (Self ) Level two (Group) Level three
(Reflective)
Pre-conventional level Conventional level Post- conventional level
Punishment and Interpersonal Social contract/legalistic
obedience orientation concordance orientation orientation
Institutional- relativist Law and order Universal ethical
orientation orientation orientation
Stages Of Moral Development
Stage 1:- it is defined by the study of consequences to you. In this stage a
person knows right or wrong on the basis of reward or punishment.
Stage 2:- a rule is considered solid, if it bring some salutary effect or impact.
Stage 3:- good moral behavior involves living up to the expectations of those
family members and friends for whom the person has respect.
Stage 4:- it is marked by respect and loyalty to community, society and
nation.
Stage 5:- people become tolerant and liberal with the understanding that in
a society there are different rules and regulations which may be mutually
conflicting at times. But in spite of that people obey these contradictory
community rules , traditions and regulations.
Stage 6:- a person consolidates all his critical views on morality through his
own judgments and evaluation. He accepts some principles as universal
ethical principle because they are consistent.
Carol Gilligan Theory Of Moral
Development
Gilligan mainly focused on the moral development on women.
Gilligan describes three precise stages of moral development.
Only focused on women.
Stage 1:- At the first stage, women care for themselves.
Stage 2:- Women internalizes the prevailing moral norms and
standards. Along with these norms, they learn to make sacrifices
for their near and dear ones which would sometimes involve
neglecting themselves.
Stage 3:-Women generally maintain a balance- they care for
themselves and others. Women become cautious and questions
the prevailing standards of morality. which were initially
accepted by them in second stage.
Difference Between Kohlberg And Gilligan
Studies
Kohlberg Theory Gilligan Theory
Right based analysis Care based analysis
Believe in six stages Three stages
Consider only the male pattern Consider only female pattern
Personal relationship with others is not Personal relationship is the basis for
decisive factor for moral development. moral development .
Love and care do not decide the For women everything is based on love
trajectory of moral growth. and care.
Ethical Syllogism (Reasoning)
In ethical reasoning, moral standards of any country or society can be
judged with reference to the set of universal moral standards.
So it is necessary to gauge the universal moral standard in a particular
situation. It is regarded as the major universal premise of reasoning.
In ethical or moral reasoning , there are two interrelated ethical
propositions, and on the basis of this relationship one can arrive at the
third proposition.
The third proposition is called as inferences or conclusion.
The whole logic process of drawing conclusions from the two given
propositions is called as syllogism.
First statement – Universal accepted standard
Second statement – factual truth
Conclusion – Empirically valid
Ethical Relativism (ER)
It is empirical fact that all ethical norms and facts are
not equally valid and applicable in all societies. Some
ethical norms are acceptable in some country but not
acceptable in others.
Thus ethical standards differ from country to country
or from place to place and hence the birth of ethical
relativism.
Ethical Absolutism
It relies on the fact that some ethical standards are
universal, permanent and absolute and are applicable
to all countries and places.
They don’t change over time.
Eg: Don’t Steal, Don’t Lie, Respect your parents etc
Ontology (Nature) And Scope of Ethics
1. Ethics deals with human behavior that is related to
character, conduct, moral issues and right or wrong.
2. The human conduct that ethics are voluntary and not
forced or imposed.
3. Ethics is a science in the sense that it gives you systematic
knowledge about moral conducts, behavior and moral
standards. It is a type of social science.
4. Ethics sets the ideal moral standards for social and
human welfare.
5. The moral standards are set with reference to religious
tradition and customs.
Fundamental Objectives Of Ethics
1. Ethics is concerned with human behavior.
2. It sets an ideal standard of moral conduct of
behavior.
3. It is diagnostic in nature – it passes judgments on
human behavior.
4. It is prescriptive – it recommends ideal ethical
behavior to be followed .
5. It is analytical – it analysis overt human behavior and
conduct and passes judgment.
Four Critical Principles Of Ethics
Ego based principle ( Ethical or Psychological Egoism):- human
actions are essentially ego- centric or selfish. Eg. Making a donation
– to gain popularity.
Rule based principles :- this principle believe that ethical actions
should be based on certain given rules of ethics. In such case, the
consequences are not important. But the open action is crucial. Eg.
“Always speak truth” – irrespective of the consequences.
End based principle:- it is based on notion of consequences of
actions. Thus an action is taken only when it produces some positive
results or utility. Often termed as consequentialism or utilitarianism.
Care based principles:- Golden rule in ethics. In this rule, action is
based on care and compassion. Eg. Accident victim on the road.
Ethical Pluralism
Ethical pluralism makes an attempt to integrate all
the ethical theories or principles while considering a
particular situation. In that case conflicts can be
resolved with the application of correct ethical
principle.
Cognitivism And Non-cognitivism
One branch of ethical philosophy claims that it is possible to know
right from wrong or good from bad in a very clear and objective
manner. This is called as cognitivism. Some theories under this are:
- Utilitarianism
- Consequentialism & Non – Consequentialism
- Religion based morality
However some philosophy maintain that it is not objectively
possible to know what is good or what is bad. It is known as non-
cognitivism. Some theories under this are:
- Duty based theory of Immanuel Kant (Deontological) Theory
- Natural Law based theory of rights