Elements of the petroleum

system
• Source rock
• Migration
• Reservoir rock
• Seal rock
• Trap
• Time
Origin: Migration
 Seal
The seal is also known as the “caprock”. It must be relatively impermeable to
petroleum fluids. The most common seals are fine grained clastic rocks,
mudstones, claystones and shales, but the most effective seals are usually
evaporites, especially halite, but also anhydrite. However, any rocks with low
porosity and permeability can form a seal.
Minerals and Matter

Physical Geology Course

Fall’ 16
 Agenda
• Introduction
• Matter and Its Composition
• Minerals
• Group Exercise
• Quiz
• What is the difference between a mineral and
a rock?
 Introduction
•• Mineral-
  naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline solid,
with a specified chemical composition, and distinctive
physical properties.
• Rock- aggregate of minerals.
Example: Ice- a mineral?

Its atoms of H and O are arranged in a specific 3-dimensional pattern;

chemical composition- ; physical properties such as density and hardness.
Introduction
 Introduction Cont.
• Some minerals have been a source of fascination for
years. (served as religious symbols or talismans)

• Many minerals account for complex economic and

political ties between nations.
Example: US has no domestic production of manganese (Mn), a necessary
element for the production of steel, nor does it produce any cobalt (Co) for
use in magnets and corrosion.
Gold
• What is the
chemical
formula of
gold ?
 Matter and Its Composition
• Matter – anything that has mass and occupies space, so
it exists as solids, liquids, gases, and plasma (ionized gas).

Matter consists of chemical elements, each of which is composed of tiny

particles called atoms.

Atoms have a nucleus made up of one or more protons (+ charged) and

electrically neutral neutrons. Electrons (- charged) rapidly orbit the nucleus at
specific distances in one or more electron shells.
 Matter and Its Composition Cont.
The number of protons in atom’s nucleus determines its atomic number.
For example: C has 6 protons. Hence, atomic number of C is 6.
An atom’s atomic mass number is found by adding the number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus.

However, the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an element may vary.

For example: C atoms with 6 protons have 6,7, and 8 neutrons, making three
isotopes.
 Matter and Its Composition Cont.
•• The
  process whereby atoms join to other atoms is known
as bonding.
• Should atoms of two or more elements bond, the
resulting substance is a compound.
For example: gaseous oxygen is an element, whereas ice, made up of H and O
(), is a compound.
• Most minerals are compounds, but there are a few
important exceptions.
For example: gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), graphite and diamond (C),
sulfur (S), copper (Cu)- known as native elements.
 Octet rule and bonding
• Octet rule: Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are
surrounded by eight valence electrons. Although there are exceptions to
the octet rule, it is a useful rule of thumb for understanding chemical
bonding. When an atom’s outer shell does not contain eight electrons, it is
likely to chemically bond to other atoms to fill its shell.

Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred

Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing
Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move
How Do Minerals Form?
• Precipitation of Mineral Matter - two factors—a
drop in temperature and water lost through evaporation
Crystallization of Molten Rock
• Crystallization of Molten Rock : When magma is hot, the atoms are very
mobile; but as the molten material cools, the atoms slow and begin to
chemically combine.
Crystallization of Molten Rock

• Deposition as a Result of
Biological Processes : Mollusks
(such as clams) and other
marine invertebrates also
secrete shells composed of the
carbonate minerals calcite and
aragonite.
• How can graphite and diamond be so different
if they are both composed of pure carbon?
 Minerals
• Minerals are (a) crystalline solids in which their atoms are
arranged in a specific 3-D framework.
 Minerals Cont.
• Each mineral has its own crystal family it belongs to,
which is known as Bravais lattices.
Crystal family Sides Angles
Isometric a=a=a α=β=γ=90°

  Pyrite-

Halite- NaCl
 Minerals Cont.
• Each mineral has its own crystal family it belongs to,
which is known as Bravais lattices.
Crystal family Sides Angles
Tetragonal a=a≠c α=β=γ=90°

  Rutile-

Andalusite-Al2SiO5
 Minerals Cont.
• Each mineral has its own crystal family it belongs to,
which is known as Bravais lattices.
Crystal family Sides Angles
Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90°

  Aragonite-

Orthopyroxene-
 
 Minerals Cont.
• Each mineral has its own crystal family it belongs to,
which is known as Bravais lattices.
Crystal family Sides Angles
Hexagonal a=a≠ c α=β=90°, γ=120°

  Quartz-

  Calcite-
 Minerals Cont.
• Each mineral has its own crystal family it belongs to,
which is known as Bravais lattices.
Crystal family Sides Angles
Monoclinic a≠b≠c α=γ=90°, β≠90°

  Orthoclase-
 Minerals Cont.
• Each mineral has its own crystal family it belongs to,
which is known as Bravais lattices.
Crystal family Sides Angles
Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90°

  Kyanite-
 Physical Properties
• Minerals have (c) distinctive physical properties, which are
particularly useful for identification.
Physical Properties Used Description
to Identify Minerals
Luster Appearance in reflected light; if it has
appearance of a metal, luster is metallic
Color Non-reliable, but rather constant in
minerals with metallic luster
Streak Powdered mineral on a streak plate is
typical of a mineral’s true color
Crystal form Useful only if crystals are visible
Cleavage Minerals with cleavage tend to break
along a smooth plane or planes of
weakness
Hardness Abrasion to resistance
Specific gravity Ratio of a mineral’s weight to an equal
volume of water
Reaction with HCl Calcite react vigorously, but dolomite
reacts when powdered
Other properties Talc has a soapy feel; graphite writes
on a paper; magnetite is magnetic;
halite tastes salty; closely spaced,
parallel lines are visible on plagioclase
Physical Properties
 Group Exercise
• Identify three minerals: calcite, halite, quartz.
 Mineral Groups Cont.
•• Although
  minerals are subdivided into different mineral
groups based on their specified chemical composition,
some minerals have a range of compositions because one
element can substitute for another if ions of the two
elements have the same electrical charge and about the
same size.
For example:
1.Fe and Mg (both “+2”) substitute for one another in olivine.
- may have iron, magnesium or both.

2. Ca and Na substitute for one another in the plagioclase feldspars, which

vary from calcium-rich () to sodium-rich (Na Al) .
 Abundant Elements
• The most abundant elements in the Earth’s Crust are the following:
Element Abundance
(%)
Oxygen (O) ~46
Silicon (Si) ~28
Aluminum (Al) ~8
Iron (Fe) ~5
Calcium (Ca) ~4
Sodium (Na) ~3
Magnesium (Mg) ~2
Potassium (K) ~2
Titanium (Ti) ~1.85

• Hence, the most abundant minerals are made up of these

elements.
 Mineral Groups
• Minerals have (b) a specified chemical composition, based on
which they are divided into different mineral groups.

• Major mineral groups are the following:

I. Native elements.
II. Oxides.
III. Sulfides.
IV. Sulfates.
V. Carbonates.
VI. Halides.
VII. Silicates. (The biggest mineral group.. Why?)
 Mineral Groups Cont.
• Native Elements are minerals that form as individual
elements.
For example: gold, silver, copper, sulfur, diamond, etc.
Gold Silver

Copper

Diamond
 Mineral Groups Cont.
• Silicate minerals contain silicon (Si) and oxygen (O),
which are two most abundant elements in the Earth’s
crust.
Topaz
For example:
Fayalite- Fe2SiO4
Forsterite- Mg2SiO4
Almandine- Fe3Al2(SiO4)3
Zircon- ZrSiO4 Forsterite
Kyanite- Al2SiO5
Sillimanite- Al2SiO5
Topaz- Al2SiO4(F,OH)2
Titanite- CaTiSiO5

Titanite
 Mineral Groups Cont.
• Oxides are made up of oxygen and one/more metals.
For example: Corundum
ice- H2O
cuprite- Cu2O
corundum- Al2O3
hematite- Fe2O3
ilmenite- FeTiO3
rutile- TiO2 Hematite
magnetite- Fe3O4
chromite- FeCr2O4
brucite- Mg(OH)2
manganite- MnO(OH)
brucite- Mg(OH)2
Cuprite
 Mineral Groups Cont.
• Sulfides contain sulfur and a metal.
For example:
galena- PbS
chalcocite- Cu2S
chalcopyrite- CuFeS2 Realgar
covellite- CuS
realgar- AsS Galena
orpiment- As2S3
pyrite- FeS2 Orpiment
molybdenite- MoS2
stibnite- Sb2S3

Chalcopyrite
 Mineral Groups Cont.
• Sulfates contain sulfur and oxygen combined with other
elements. Celestite
For example:
barite- BaSO4
celestite- SrSO4
anhydrite- CaSO4
gypsum- CaSO4·2H2O

Barite Gypsum
 Mineral Groups Cont.
•• Carbonates
  contain carbonate and a combination of
carbon and oxygen, combined with other elements.
For example:
Calcite
Calcite- CaCO3
Magnesite- MgCO3
Rhodochrosite- MnCO3
Siderite- FeCO3
Smithsonite- ZnCO3
Aragonite CaCO3
Natrite Na2CO3 Siderite
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
Rhodochrosite
 Mineral Groups Cont.
• Halides include such elements as chlorine (Cl) and
fluorine (F).
For example:
Halite NaCl
Sylvite KCl Sylvite
Fluorite CaF2
Halite

Fluorite
 Quiz
1. What is a mineral?
2. Name at least 3 crystal forms/ Bravais lattices.
3. What are 3 most abundant elements in the Earth’s
crust?
4. What do halides include in chemical composition?
5. Name physical properties for identification of a
mineral.
6. What is hardness of Quartz?
7. Distinguish: Silicon – Silicate – Silica
 Real-life Examples of Minerals
• Quartz (silicate)
•Chemical
  Composition: (Silicon Dioxide)
Hardness (Mohs): 7
Color(s): clear, White, Pink (Rose Quartz), Brown,
Gray, Black, Green, Blue, Orange, Purple (Amethyst),
Yellow (Citrine), Purple and Yellow (Ametrine), and others
Lustre: Vitreous.
Transparency: Transparent, Translucent
Crystal system: hexagonal.
Common Locations: found all over the world,
most notably Brazil and Arkansas, US.
Rock type: igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic.
 Real-life Examples of Minerals
• Amethyst (silicate)
Chemical composition: SiO2
Color: light to dark purple.
Its purple coloring is usually caused by
impurities of iron or manganese compounds.
Hardness: 7.
Streak: white.
Crystal System: hexagonal.
Transparency: transparent to translucent
Luster: vitreous.
Environment: occurs in all mineral environments,
especially in igneous environments.
Rock Type: igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic.
 Real-life Examples of Minerals
• Hematite (oxide)
•Chemical
  Composition:
Color(s): Silvery-Gray-Black, Red, Black, Gray
Hardness (Mohs): 5-6
Crystal system: hexagonal.
Transparency:  opaque.
Lustre: metallic, earthy.
Cleavage: none
Other ID marks: paramagnetic, meaning it is slightly attracted to magnetic field.
Common / Notable Locations:  worldwide.
Environment of deposition: huge deposits of hematite are found in banded iron formations. The
mineral can precipitate out of water and collect in layers at the bottom of a lake, spring, or other
standing water.
Rock Type: igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic.
 Real-life Examples of Minerals
• Malachite (carbonate)
Chemical Composition: Cu2CO3(OH)2
Hardness (Mohs): 3.5-4
Color(s): light to dark green, sometimes
banded with darker and lighter shades of green,
and sometimes sparkling.
Crystal system: monoclinic.
Transparency:  opaque
Lustre: dull
Common / Notable Locations:  worldwide.
Environment of deposition: as a secondary mineral in the oxidation zone of copper deposits.
Rock type: Sedimentary, metamorphic.
 Real-life Examples of Minerals
• Azurite (carbonate)
Chemical Composition: Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
Hardness (Mohs): 3.5-4
Color(s): blue to very dark blue.
Crystal system: monoclinic.
Transparency:  Opaque, rarely translucent.
Lustre: dull
Common / Notable Locations:  Worldwide.
Environment of deposition: As a secondary mineral
in the oxidation zone of copper deposits.
Rock type: Sedimentary, metamorphic.