Digestive and Excretory

System

 
Group 4
Pira, Maverick Miguel
Sim, Hamin
Villa, Jose Angelo
Budomo, Kimberly
Lorenzo, Aliyana Mae
Pertible, Patricia Anne
Digestive System
 I. Anatomy and Physiology
A.Alimentary Tract
(Gastrointestinal
Tract)

• Lumen – Cavity of the

alimentary tract
• Peritoneum – Holds the
digestive organs within the
abdominal cavity in place
 i. Tissues of the Alimentary Tract

1. Mucosal Layer –
Secretes mucus and
hormones into the lumen
2. Submucosal Layer –
Provides elasticity
3. Muscularis Externa Layer
– Allows mechanical
digestion
4. Serosa – Secretes
serous fluids; outermost
layer
 ii. Parts of the Alimentary Tract

1. Mouth – Ingests food,

chews and mixes food,
begins chemical breakdown,
moves food into the pharynx
a. Hard Palate – Anterior
hard surface to mash
food against
b. Soft Palate – Flexible
posterior surface that
form the boundary
between the mouth and
throat
c. Uvula – directs food
down into the pharynx
and closes off
nasopharynx
 ii. Parts of the Alimentary Tract

d. Teeth – around 32 in number;

mechanically digests food
i. Incisors – Bite food
ii. Canines – Tear food apart
iii. Premolars – Crush food
iv. Molars – Grind food
e. Tongue – grips and repositions food,
secretes saliva

 Bolus - ball-like mixture of food

and saliva that forms in the mouth
during the process of chewing

a. Salivary Glands – delivers enzymes

like salivary amylase which breaks
down starches into glucose
monomers
 ii. Parts of the Alimentary Tract

2. Pharynx – Propels food from the oral

cavity to the
esophagus
3. Esophagus – Propels food to the stomach
a. Epiglottis – flap that prevents food
from entering the trachea
4. Stomach – Mixes and churns food with
gastric juices to form chyme, begins
chemical breakdown of proteins, releases
chyme into the duodenum
a. Gastric Glands
i. Parietal Cells – secretes HCl
ii. Chief Cells – secretes
Pepsinogen
iii.Enteroendocrine Cells –
secretes regulatory hormones
iv.G Cells – secretes Gastrin
 ii. Parts of the Alimentary Tract

5.Small Intestine – Mixes chyme with digestive

juices, absorbs breakdown products of
macromolecules
a. Villi – hair-like structures; capillaries
that absorb nutrients and aid in
movement of chyme
i. Microvilli - smaller hair-like
structures that function similarly to villi
b. Duodenum - Opening of the small
intestine where most chemical digestion
occurs
c. Jejunum - Middle section of the small intestine
where most nutrient absorption occurs
d. Ileum - End of the small intestine where
important vitamins are absorbed
•Chyme – partly digested food and gastric
juices
 ii. Parts of the Alimentary Tract

6.Large Intestine – Further breaks

down food through good bacteria,
absorbs remaining residual water,
stores and eliminates feces

a. Cecum – Opening of the large

intestine
b. Colon – Moves stool to the
rectum
c. Rectum – Moves stool to anal
canal
d. Anus – Excretes stool
B. Accessory
Digestive Organs

i. Liver - Produces bile salts,

which emulsify lipids, aiding
their digestion and absorption
ii. Gallbladder – Stores,
concentrates, and releases bile
• Bile – acts as an emulsifier
and aids in the digestion of
lipids
iii. Pancreas – Produces digestive
enzymes and bicarbonate
iv. Appendix – Part of the large
intestine, acts as a reserve of
 D. Phases of Digestive Regulation
I. Cephalic Phase – Starts
production of gastric acid
triggered by senses and
thoughts of incoming food that
sends neural signals to the
stomach.
II. Gastric Phase - Increases the
amount of gastric acid as
necessary triggered by
presence of food in the
stomach.
III. Intestinal Phase - Regulates
the exit of chyme into the
intestines.
 C.Process of Digestion
i. Ingestion - entry of food into the alimentary canal through the mouth,where
food is chewed and mixed with saliva.
ii. Propulsion – movement of food through the digestive tract
1.Swallowing – voluntary
2.Peristalsis – involuntary process of alternating waves of contraction
and relaxation of alimentary wall smooth muscles, propelling food
along the
iii. Mechanical Digestion – purely physical process that increases surface
area of food
1. Mastication – chewing and tongue movements that help break food
into smaller bits and mix food with saliva
2. Segmentation - alternating contractions and relaxations of adjoining
portions of intestine which helps to break and mix up contents of food
iv. Chemical Digestion – breakdown of complex food molecules (polymers) into
their building blocks (monomers)
v. Absorption – entry of nutrients into the bloodstream
vi. Defecation – excretion of undigested materials as feces tract.
 III. Diseases and Ailments
A. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) -
happens when stomach contents come back up into
your esophagus causing heartburn (acid reflux).
B. Lactose Intolerance - Hindrance to digest food
containing lactose due to the absence of the enzyme
lactase
C. Gallstones - Occurs due to excess cholesterol or
waste in bile or improper emptying of the gall
bladder, resulting in hard deposits
D. Peptic Ulcers - Occurs when stomach lining comes
into contact with gastric acid, in the absence of the
protective mucus layer
E. Liver Problems
I. Hepatitis B
II. Hepatitis C
F. Celiac Disease - Autoimmune disease that
occurs due to the presence of gluten, where
the immune system damages the villi
G. Crohn’s Disease - An inflammatory bowel
disease (IBD), a hereditary disease with
symptoms of abdominal pain, rectal bleeding, weight loss,
and fever
H. Ulcerative Colitis - is an inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
that causes long-lasting inflammation and ulcers (sores) in
your digestive tract.
 IV. Care and Maintenance
A. Eat a high-fiber diet.
B. Get both insoluble and soluble fiber.
C. Limit foods that are high in fat.
D. Choose lean meats.
E. Incorporate probiotics into your diet.
F. Eat on schedule.
G. Stay hydrated.
H. Skip the bad habits: smoking, excessive
caffeine, and alcohol.
I. Exercise regularly.
J. Manage stress.
Excretory System
 I. Anatomy and Physiology

A. Renal Arteries – delivers oxygenated blood

into the kidneys
B. Liver – converts ammonia into urea
C. Kidneys – 2 dark-red, fist-sized, bean shaped
organs that sit on each side of the spine
against the posterior body wall.
these are retroperitoneal, lying between the
dorsal wall and the peritoneum
it maintains water levels and dissolved
materials, controls blood pressure
i. Renal Cortex (tree bark) –
outermost layer of the
kidneys
ii. Renal Medulla (pith) – a set
of cone-shaped masses of
tissue that secrete urine into
sac-like tubules
iii. Renal Pelvis – funnel-shaped
tube surrounded by smooth
muscle that moves urine out
of the kidney
iv. Nephrons – structural and
functional unit of the kidney
– Filtrate – the fluid filtered from
the blood
 1. Renal Corpuscle – blood-
filtering component of the
nephron
a. Glomerular Capsule/
Bowman’s Capsule – a
network of capillaries called
the glomerulus (ball of yarn)
• a porous endothelium
which allows fluid waste
products, ions, glucose,
amino acids to pass
from the blood into the
capsule
b. Vasa Recta – peritubular
capillaries where blood
cells and proteins exit the
kidney
2. Collecting Duct – final
extraction of water; some urea
passively leaves the urine, making
the medulla saltier
3. Renal Tube – long, winding tubule
that loops around the cortex and medulla
a. Proximal Convoluted Tubule – where
organic solutes (glucose, amino acids)
are reabsorbed; pulls sodium ions
through active transport
b. Loop of Henle – extracts water,
pumps out salts, creates a salt
concentration gradient along the
medulla
– Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle –
German Physician and Anatomist
c. Aquaporins – protein channels that
allow water to move easily into the
blood
d. Distal Convoluted Tubule – regulates
levels of potassium, sodium, and
calcium; at this point, the filtrate is
now officially urine
A. Ureter – smooth tubes that contract through peristalsis,
transporting urine from the kidney to the bladder
B. Bladder – where urine is stored
i. Inner Mucosa – allows the bladder to expand
ii. Detrusor – muscular layer
iii. Outer Membrane
1. Rugae – the folds when the bladder is collapsed
C. Urethra – where the urine leaves the body
i. Female: 4-5cm long
ii. Male: 20cm long
1. Urethral Sphincter
2. Urogenital Diaphragm
3. External Urethral Sphincter – made of skeletal muscles
and is controlled voluntarily
II. Processes of the Excretory
System
A. Homeostasis – regulation of the body’s internal environment
i. Osmoregulation – most important function of the renal
system, in which blood volume, blood pressure, and blood
osmolarity (ion concentration) is maintained in homeostasis
B. Ammonia (NH3) – A highly toxic substance formed when
proteins are metabolized
i. Urea – mammals, amphibians, and some marine animals
convert ammonia into urea, a low toxicity substance that
needs water to dissolve and expel
ii. Uric Acids – birds, reptiles, and insects convert ammonia into
uric acid which is more of a paste, meaning less water is
needed.
C. Glomerular Filtration – occurs in the glomerulus where filterable
blood components move inside while nonfilterable components,
such as blood cells and serum albumins, will exit
i. Glomerular Filtration Rate - the measure that describes the
total amount of filtrate formed by all the renal corpuscles in
both kidneys per minute
1. Autoregulation - higher blood pressure will cause arteries
to stretch, which will cause the glomerulus to shrink to
preserve GFR
D. Tubular Reabsorption – occurs in the renal tube where water
molecules and ions are reabsorbed into the circulatory system
E. Tubular Secretion – some substances such as hydrogen ions are
removed from the blood and into the collecting duct
 III. Diseases and Ailments

A. Abnormal Urine
i. Proteinuria - Protein content in urine, often due to leaky or
damaged glomeruli
ii. Oliguria - An abnormally small amount of urine, often due to
shock or kidney damage
iii. Polyuria - An abnormally large amount of urine, often caused
by diabetes
iv. Dysuria - Painful or uncomfortable urination, often from
urinary tract infections
v. Hematuria - Red blood cells in urine, from infection or injury
vi. Glycosuria- Glucose in urine, due to excess plasma glucose
in diabetes
A. GWSE

B. Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) - Scientifically called pyuria,

urine content contains leukocytes or white blood cells
C. Diabetes - A group of endocrine diseases whereby a person
has high blood sugar due to an inability to produce,
metabolize, or respond to the hormone insulin.
D. Kidney Stones - formed by the accumulation of uric acid
crystals within the kidneys.
E. Kidney Failure - cessation of functioning of one or both
kidneys
F. Urethritis - inflammation of the urethra
 IV. Care and Maintenance
A. Drink water all the time especially when
you feel thirsty.
B. Go easy on salt.
C. Consider reducing your caffeine intake.
D. Drink extra water when exposed to sun or
during exercise.
E. Urinate whenever and as much as
needed.
F. Do not or quit smoking.
G. Avoid constipation.
H. Keep a healthy weight.
 REFERENCES
13 Tips to Keep Your Bladder Healthy. (n.d.). Retrieved from National Institute on Aging:
https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/13-tips-keep-your-bladder-healthy
ADAM, I. (2020, January 6). Digestive diseases. Retrieved from MedlinePlus:
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007447.htm
Boundless. (n.d.). Boundless Anatomy and Physiology. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/overview-of-the-urinary-system/
Disorders of the Excretory System. (n.d.). Retrieved from toppr.com: https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/excretory-
products/disorders-of-the-excretory-system/
Foster, V. (2020). Types of Teeth and their Functions: An Overview of Dental Anatomy: CE Course. Retrieved
from https://www.dentalcare.com/en-us/professional-education/ce-courses/ce500/types- of-teeth-and-their-functions
García, V. G. (2017, March 12). The Digestive System - Anatomy and Physiology - Biology and Geology 3rd CSE -
Spain. Retrieved from SlideShare: https://www.slideshare.net/victorgilgarcia/the-digestive- system-anatomy-and-
physiology-biology-and-geology-3rd-cse-spain-73074088?qid=9ef1efa1- ad2e-4eb3-bca6-
8019dbd7e77d&v=&b=&from_search=2
Holmes, L. (n.d.). ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE URINARY SYSTEM. Retrieved from SlideServe:
https://www.slideserve.com/lucky/anatomy-and-physiology-of-the-urinary-system
McCoy, K. (2017, August 24). 10 Tips for Better Digestive Health. Retrieved from Everyday Health:
https://www.everydayhealth.com/digestive-health/tips-for-better-digestive-health/
Newman, L. (2019, November 23). Tips for Keeping Your Urinary System Healthy. Retrieved from verywellhealth:
https://www.verywellhealth.com/tips-for-keeping-your-urinary-system-healthy- 3300090
OpenStax, L. L. &. (n.d.). Anatomy and Physiology II. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny- ulster-
ap2/chapter/digestive-system-processes-and-regulation/
Shah, R. (n.d.). Digestive Organs Diseases Found in Animals. Retrieved from Biology Discussions: http://
www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/diseases-animals-2/digestive-organs-diseases-found- in-animals/25397