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LC Technology

Manufacturing Systems
Quality Management – Pareto Analysis

Pinpoints problems through the identification


and separation of the ‘vital few’ problems from
the trivial many.

Vilifredo Pareto: concluded that 80% of the


problems with any process are due to 20% of
the causes.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35

Dry Joint

Oversolder

Not Soldered

Wrong Placement

Faulty Comp

PCB fault
Causes of poor soldering

Des.Error

Heat Damage
Quality Management – Pareto Analysis
Quality Management – Pareto Analysis

Causes of poor soldering – descending order

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

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in

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ty

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Quality Management – Pareto Analysis
Cumulative plot is made of all of the causes
80% caused by two problems

120

100 97.5 99.5 100


95
92
Cumulative Contribution %

87
80 80

60 60

40

20

in
t r ed
t nt r e e
o de er en ne rr
o ag g
J l m po E n an
y so ld ce da am
Dr er So la om gn
Ov ot P C e si C
B t D
N ng ty D P ea
ro a ul H
W F
Statistical Process Control

•Statistical procedure to verify quality

•Check manufacturing process is working correctly


→Inspect and measure manufacturing process
→Varying from target – corrective action taken

•Prevents poor quality before it occurs


Statistical Process Control

When? Manufacturing large quantities of items


•Euro coins
•Computers
•Cars etc.
Why?
•Impractical to measure each item made
•Machine/equipment/human error

How?
•Measure a small proportion of the produced items (sample)
•Use X-bar and R Charts to see if process is in control
•Conclude the quality characteristics of the whole process
Normal Distribution

Laser machine A – cutting 20mm hole


Machine A
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
19.7 19.8 19.9 19.9 20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4

Some measurement < 20mm


Natural occurrence
Some measurements > 20mm
Normal Distribution

Machine B making same part as machine A


•Same distribution
•Skewed to right
Machine B
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
19.7 19.9 20 20.2 20.4
Normal Distribution
Histogram:
•Statistical information
•Column width represents a range of sizes
•Shape of histogram is proportional to spread of data

120

100

80

60 Series1

40

20

0
1.525

1.55

1.65

1.675

1.75

1.825

1.85
1.575

1.625

1.7

1.725

1.775

1.8

1.875
1.6

1.5 1.525 1.55 1.575 1.6 1.625 1.65 1.675 1.7 1.725 1.75 1.775 1.8 1.825 1.85

Results of a survey on the heights of a group of pupils in a large school


Column width = 25mm
Normal Distribution
Larger survey – population of a town
Column width = 10mm

60

50

40

30

20

10

1.5 1.511.52 1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.57 1.58 1.59 1.6 1.611.62 1.63 1.64 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.68 1.69 1.7 1.711.72 1.73 1.74 1.75 1.76 1.77 1.78 1.79 1.8 1.811.82 1.83 1.84 1.85 1.86 1.87

•Centered about mean


•Characteristic ‘Bell’ shape curve
•Number of occurrences reduce as they deviate from the mean
Normal Distribution

A very small sample interval approximates a curve as shown

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Normal Distribution

60

50

40

30

20

10

All measurable attributes show a variation


Spread of Sizes = Normal Distribution
Normal Distribution

•The spread or ‘width’ of the curve has a


precise mathematical meaning - Variance

•The greater the variance the wider the curve

•Defined by a parameter called the standard


deviation
Normal Distribution

Calculation of standard distribution (sigma)


-measured sizes of a sample of parts

( y1  y ) 2  ( y2  y ) 2  ....( yn  y ) 2

N

y1,y2…etc are the measured values of the sample


y is the average value
N is the number of samples taken
Normal Distribution
Sharpen 5 pencils to a length of 8 mm

6.5mm 8.2mm 8.5mm 7.5mm 7.0mm

Mean average = 7.54

(each value – mean average)² +


Sigma =
number of values

(6.5 - 7.54)² + (8.2 – 7.54)² + (8.5 – 7.54)² + (7.5 – 7.54)² + (7 – 7.54)²


5

SIGMA = 0.73
Normal Distribution

If sigma is known then we know that:

•95% of parts will lie within +/- 2σ of the mean

•99.74% of parts will lie within +/- 3σ of the mean


Control Charts

• Used to establish the control limits for a process


• Used to monitor the process to show when it is
out of control

1. X-bar Chart (Mean Charts)


2. R Charts (Range Charts)
Control Charts

Process Mean = Mean of Sample Means


Upper control limit (UCL) = Process mean+3 sigma
Lower control limit (LCL) = Process mean-3 sigma
Control Charts – X-bar Charts
1. Record measurements from a number of
samples sets (4 or 5)
Control Charts – X-bar Charts

2. Calculate the mean of each sample set

Oven temperature data


Daily
Morning Midday Evening Means

Monday 210 208 200 206

Tuesday 212 200 210 207

Wednesday 215 209 220 215

Thursday 216 207 219 214

Friday 220 208 215 214

Saturday 210 219 200 210


Control Charts – X-bar Charts

3. Calculate the process mean (mean of sample means)


Daily
Means 206  207  215  214  214  210
 211 Degrees
206 6
207

215 220
218
214
216
214 214
212
210
210
208
206
204
202
200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Control Charts – X-bar Charts
4. Calculate UCL and LCL

UCL = process mean + 3σsample


LCL = process mean - 3σsample

The standard deviation σsample of the sample means



n

where n is the sample size (3 temperature readings)


σ = process standard deviation (4.2 degrees)
4.2
σsample =  2.42 degrees
3
Control Charts – X-bar Charts
4. Calculate UCL and LCL

UCL = process mean + 3σsample


LCL = process mean - 3σsample

4.2
σsample  2.42 degrees
3

UCL = 211 + 3(2.42) = 218.27 degrees


LCL = 211 – 3(2.42) = 203.72 degrees
Control Charts – X-bar Charts

220
218
216
214
212
210
208
206
204
202
200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

UCL = 218.27
LCL = 203.72
Control Charts – X-bar Charts

Interpreting control charts: Process out of control


225

220

215

210

205

200

195
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Last data point is out of control – indicates definite problem


to be addressed immediately as defective products are
being made.
Control Charts – X-bar Charts

Interpreting control charts: Process in control


225

220

215

210

205

200

195
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Process still in control but there is a steady increase


toward the UCL. There may be a possible problem and it
should be investigated.
Control Charts – X-bar Charts

Interpreting control charts: Process in control


235

230

225

220

215

210

205

200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

All data points are all above the process mean. This
suggests some non-random influence on the process that
should be investigated.
Control Charts – Range Charts

The range is the difference between the largest and


smallest values in a sample.

Range is used to measure the process variation

1. Record measurements from a set of samples


Oven temperature data
Morning Midday Evening
210 208 200
212 200 210
215 209 220
216 207 219
220 208 215
210 219 200
Control Charts – Range Charts

2. Calculate the range = highest – lowest reading

Oven temperature data

Morning Midday Evening Range

210 208 200 10

212 200 210 12

215 209 220 11

216 207 219 12

220 208 215 12

210 219 200 19


Control Charts – Range Charts

Sample size (n) D3 D4


3. Calculate UCL and LCL
2 0 3.27

UCL = D4 x Raverage 3 0 2.57

4 0 2.28
LCL = D3 x Raverage 5 0 2.11

6 0 2.00

7 0.08 1.92

8 0.14 1.86

9 0.18 1.82
UCL = 2.57 x 13 10 0.22 1.78
= 33.41 degrees 11 0.26 1.74

LCL = 0 x 13
= 0 degrees
Control Charts – Range Charts

35 UCL
30

25

20

15 R average
10

5
LCL
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Process Capability

Matches the natural variation in a process to


the size requirements (tolerance) imposed by
the design

Filling a box with washers:


•exact number not in all boxes
•upper limit set
•lower limit set
Process Not Capable

Process not capable: a lot of boxes will be over and


under filled

Normal distribution > specifications


Cannot achieve tolerances all of the time
Process Capable

Process capable: However there will still be a small


number of defective parts

Normal distribution is similar to specifications


Tolerances will be met most of the time
Process Capable

Process capable: No defective parts

Normal distribution < specifications


Tolerances will be met all the time
Process Capability Index
Tolerance Range Upper Size Limit  Lower Size Limit
Cp  
6 6

If Cp =1
•Process is capable
•i.e. 99.97% of the natural variation of the process will be
within the acceptable limits
Process Capability Index

If Cp > 1

•Process is capable.
•i.e. very few defects will be found – less than three per
thousand, often much less
Process Capability Index

If Cp <1

•Process is NOT capable


•i.e. the natural variation in the process will cause outputs
that are outside the acceptable limits.
Statistical Process Control

Is doing things right 99% of the time good enough?


13 major accidents at Heathrow Airport every 2 days
5000 incorrect surgical procedures per week ………………
Pharmaceutical company producing 1 000 000 tablets a week,
99% quality would mean 10 000 tablets would be defective!

Process of maintaining high quality standards is called :


Quality Assurance
Modern manufacturing companies often aim for a target of only
3 in a million defective parts.

The term six sigma is used to describe quality at this level


Sampling

Size of Sample?
Sufficient to allow accurate assessment of process
•More – does not improve accuracy
•Less – reduced confidence in result
Sampling

Size of Sample
2
z
s 
e
S = sample size
e = acceptable error - as a proportion of std. deviation
z = number relating to degree of confidence in the result
Confidence Value for z

99% 2.58

95% 1.96

90% 1.64

80% 1.28
Sampling

Example – find mean value for weight of a


packet of sugar
•with a confidence of 95%
•acceptable error of 10%

•Weight of packet of sugar = 1000g


•Process standard deviation = 10g
Sampling

z = 1.96 from the table


e = 0.1 (i.e.10%)

Therefore the sample size s = (1.96 / 0.1)2

Therefore s = 384.16

Sample size = 385


Sampling

Assume mean weight = 1005g

Sigma = 10g

Therefore error = 10g + 10% = 11g

Result:
95% confident average weight of all
packets of sugar  994 g  1016 g
QC, QA and TQM

Quality Control:
• emerged during the 1940s and 1950s
• increase profit and reduce cost by the inspection of product
quality.
• inspect components after manufacture
• reject or rework any defective components

Disadvantages:
• just detects non-conforming products
• does not prevent defects happening
• wastage of material and time on scrapped and reworked
parts inspection process not foolproof
• possibility of non-conforming parts being shipped by
mistake
QC, QA and TQM

Quality Assurance
• Set up a quality system
• documented approach to all procedures and processes that
affect quality
• prevention and inspection is a large part of the process
• all aspects of the production process are involved
• system accredited using international standards
QC, QA and TQM

Total Quality Management


• International competition during the 1980s and 1990s
• Everybody in the organisation is involved
• Focussed on needs of the customer through teamwork
• The aim is ‘zero defect’ production
Just-In-Time Manufacture

Modern products – shortened life cycle


Manufacturer – pressure for quick response
Quick turnaround - hold inventory of stock
Holding inventory costs money for storage
Inventory items obsolete before use

New approach: Just-In-Time Manufacture


Just-In-Time Manufacture

Underlying concept: Eliminate waste.


Minimum amount:
•Materials
•Parts
•Space
•Tools
•Time
Suppliers are coordinated with manufacturing
company.
Just-In-Time Manufacture
Kanbans – Japanese word for card
Order form for components
Passed from one station to another
Initiates the production or movement of parts
Return
Container
to
Delivery
address
Next
process

Previous
process Number of
components

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