ME201 Material Science &

Engineering
Imperfections in solids

Alfaisal University
 Area Defects: Grain Boundaries
Grain boundaries (interfacial defects):
• are 2-D imperfection in crystalline solids, e.g. produced by the solidification
process
• separate regions of the materials that have different crystal structures and/or
crystallographic orientations

grain
boundaries

Grain boundaries usually stop dislocations movement

2
Area Defects: Grain Boundaries
High and low angle grain boundary can be defined based on the
misalignments of atomic planes between adjacent grains
• Small angle grain
boundaries can be
formed from
alignment of edge
dislocations
• Small grain angle
boundaries are not as
effective as large
grain angle
boundaries in
blocking dislocations

3
 Interaction between dislocations and
grain boundaries
• Motion of dislocations can be impeded by grain boundaries
– increase of the force needed to move then
(strengthening the material).
• Grain boundary present a barrier to dislocation motion: slip plane
discontinues or change orientation.
• Small angle grain boundaries are not very effective in blocking
dislocations.
• High-angle grain boundaries block slip and increase strength of
the material.

4
 Interfacial (Planar) Defects
• Twin boundaries (or planes)
– Mirror reflections of atom positions
of one side of twin plane to the other
Twin plane (boundary)
side. This gives raise to shape
memory metals, which can
recover their original shape if
heated to a high temperature.
• Stacking faults
– Occur when there is an error in the
planar stacking sequence
– Ex: for FCC metals
 normal sequence is ABCABC
 becomes ABCABABC when there
is a packing fault

5
ASTM Grain Size
N = 2n-1
 N is the number of grains per square
inch at a magnification of 100
 n is the ASTM grain size number
crystallographic planes • Crystallites (grains) can be quite
N=17 small (mm or less) and need to be
observed with a microscope.
• Optical microscope useful up to
2000X magnification
• Polishing removes surface features
such as scratches
• Etching changes reflectance
(depends on crystal orientation) and
can reveal grain boundaries as
dark lines
grain boundary
 Test Your Understanding
Determine the ASTM grain size number of a metal specimen if
45 grains per square inch are measured at a magnification of
100.

Given N=45 where N  2 n 1

ln( N)
ln( N)  (n  1) ln( 2) n 1 
ln( 2)

ln( N) ln( 45)

n 1   1  6.5
ln( 2) ln( 2)

7
 Area Defects: Grain Size
• When grain size decreases, the
resistance to dislocation
movement increases. This
strengthens the material
• By reducing the grain size, we
increase the number of grains
and, hence, increase the
amount of grain boundary area.
• Any dislocation moves only a
short distance before
encountering a grain boundary,
and the strength of the metallic
material is increased.
8
Microscopic Techniques

DISLOCATIONS

9
 Electron Microscopy
Best resolution for optical microscopes is ≈ 0.1 μm (100
nm)
For higher resolution need to use shorter wavelength
radiation
– Electron beams
• Wavelengths as short as 3 pm (0.003 nm) possible
– (Magnification as high as 1,000,000X are achievable)
• Atomic resolution possible
• Electron beams focused by magnetic lenses.

10
 Summary
• Point, Linear, and Interfacial defects exist in solids.
• Point defects • Linear defects
- Vacancies - Dislocations
- Interstitial atoms • Interfacial defects
- Substitutional impurity - Grain boundaries
atoms - Twin boundaries
- Stacking Faults

• The equilibrium number vacancy defects depends

on temperature
æ Q ö
NV =N exp ç- v ÷
è kT ø
• Dislocation types include edge, screw, and mixed

11
 Summary (continued)
• Metallic grain sizes can be quite small (< mm);
necessary to observe with a microscope.

• Optical microscopy can provide up to ≈ 0.1 μm resolution.

• Higher magnifications, better resolution, with electron

microscopes.

12
 Quiz
• Determine the approximate density of a high-
leaded brass that has a composition of 64.5 wt
% Cu, 33.5 wt% Zn, and 2.0 wt% Pb.

13
 Review quiz
Application of Hume–Rothery rules – Solid Solutions
Ex: Would you predict Element Atomic Crystal Electro- Valence
more Al or Ag to Radius Structure nega-
(nm) tivity
dissolve in Zn? Cu 0.1278 FCC 1.9 +2
1. Δr – slightly favors Al C 0.071
2. Electronegativity – favors Al H 0.046
3. Crystal structure – Same O 0.060
4. Valences –higher valance moreAg 0.1445 FCC 1.9 +1
Al 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3
soluble so favors Al Co 0.1253 HCP 1.8 +2
This suggests Al is more Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3
Fe 0.1241 BCC 1.8 +2
soluble in Zn. This Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2
agrees with experimental Pd 0.1376 FCC 2.2 +2
observations. Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6 +2

Table on p. 135, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

14