CHAPTER - 1

Project Management
 Introduction
 Project management is the art of organizing the components of a project, whether the
project is development of a new product, the launch of a new service, a marketing
campaign, or a wedding.
 Elements of Project Management
Planning :
Planning is the most important technique of the project management.
 Planning means defining the objectives of the project and to identify the different task,
material, equipment and etc. that are required for completing the project.
Scheduling :
 scheduling is deciding the order of all the activities and allocation of resources (like
time, space, equipment, material and manpower) to the activities.
Controlling
 control of any management system, involves close monitoring of resources, costs,
quality and budgets.
 controlling involves the execution of planning and scheduling and it also deals with the
rescheduling of the project.
 Methods of Project Management
Bar charts
 Bar charts were introduced by Henry Gantt around 1900 A.D., therefore they are also
called as Gantt charts.
 Bar chart is a graphical representation of activity v/s time.
 Usually horizontal axis represents the time duration and vertical axis represents
activities or jobs to be performed.
 Activities are shown with the help of a bar.
 Therefore the length of the bar represents the time required for the completion of that
activity. S ta r tin g F in ish in g

C
A ct iv ity

2 8 12
T im e (d a y s )
Advantage of Bar Chart
 It is simple to draw
 No trained/skilled personnel are required
 The progress achieved at site is expressed in terms of percentage.
 It may be used for depicting the resource requirement of a construction project.
 It provides a visual representation of the entire project which shows exactly when each
of the above activities is supposed to start and finish.
Limitations of Bar Chart
 Lack of Degree of Details
 No Review of Project Progress
 No Activity Inter-relationship
Time Uncertainties
 It does not indicate the critical activities of the project.
No Cost Optimization
Milestone Charts
 The milestone chart is a improvement over the original bar chart.
In each activity, there are certain key events which mark the completion of certain
portion of the main activity. Such key events are called as milestone.
    M ileston e
A
J obs or  
B
A ctiv ities   
C
 
D

T im e
Linked Bar Chart
 This is an improvement over Gantt chart or milestone chart, in this activities are linked
with arrows and lines, specifying the sequence and order of preceding activities.
Network Analysis
 A network is a graphical and logical model or plan which lists out the sequence of
various activities (with interdepencies) which are required for the completion of
project.
Advantages
 It clearly shows interrelationship between various activities and events.
 It can be used for big and complicated projects having large number of activities.
 It is helpful in rescheduling and controlling
 It can also be used for projects or activities having uncertainty.
Types of Networks
 Activity on Arrow (A–O–A) or Arrow P r o j e c t O b j e c t i v e s S p e c i fi e d
Diagrams in T er m s of en d I tem s

 Activity on Node (A–O–N) or

S ystem S y stem
Precedence Diagram
Work Breakdown Structure
 Process of breaking the project into S u b S y stem S u b S y stem
easily identifiable major systems, their
sub-systems and discrete activities is
called the work breakdown structure. C om p on en t C om p on en t

 Work breakdown structure is a device

that identifies the functional elements
E lem en t E lem en t
of a project and their inter-
relationship.
 Objective Questions
1. Arrange the phases of project management in correct order
1. Controlling
2. Scheduling
3. Planning
(a) 1 – 2 – 3 (b) 2 – 1 – 3
(c) 3 – 1 – 2 (d) 3 – 2 – 1
2. Functional organization system of working was introduced by
(a) F.W. Taylor (b) Henry Gantt
(c) M.R. Walker (d) J.E. Kelly
3. A serious limitation of interdependencies between various activities is generally
observed in
(a) bar charts
(b) work break down structure
(c) network analysis
(d) job layouts
4. Match List-I (Chart) with List-II (Facilitation) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
A. Bar Chart 1. Activity dependencies can be implied
B. Milestone Bar Chart 2. Resource requirement can be depicted
C. WBS 3. Higher level of authority can effect monitoring and
control
D. Linked Bar chart 4. Trade based site supervision can be assigned
Codes:
A B C D
(a) 4 3 2 1
(b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 4 1 2 3
(d) 2 3 4 1
5. Which are the critical activities of the bar chart shown below?
A
B
C
A ctiv ities

D
E
F

4 10 14 20 29
T im e in d a y s

(a) Activities B and E (b) Activities A, D and F

(c) Activities A, C and E(d) Activities A and F
6. Consider the following statements in work breakdown structure.
1. It is a graphical representation of entire programme.
2. The top-down approach to planning is adopted.
3. The down-top approach to planning is adopted.
4. It is suitable for complex projects.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 4
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 4 only
7. Assertion (A): Linked bar chart cannot be developed from an AON network as easily
as from an AOA network.
Reason (R): AON networks do not incorporate information corresponding to dummy
arrows of AOA networks
Ans. (a)
 CHAPTER - 2

Fundamentals of
Network
 Introduction
 Network are used for the purpose of planning, scheduling and controlling the progress
on various components of the projects, specially those projects which are complex in
nature.
Network diagrams are of two types:
• Activity over Arrow (A – O – A)
• Activity over Node (A – O – N)
Activity over Arrow (A – O – A) network diagrams
Activity
 Activity are denoted by an arrow. The “tail of the arrow” signifies the start of activity
and “the arrow head” its termination.
Description
Duration (T)
 Length of arrow has no significance.
Types of Activities
1. Serial activities :
B

A
C

Event
An event is a instant of time or state at which some specific milestone has been achieved.
An event does not consume any time or resource.

cir cu la r S quare r ect a n g le oval

Tail event 3

B
A C
1 2 4
D

5
Head event
 An event which marks the completion of an activity
C
4 E

F
D
5
Dummy Activity
 It is a type of activity in the network which neither consumes any time nor resources.
It is an artificial activity.
Use of Dummies
Grammatical Purpose
P u r ch a sin g & S u p p ly of p ip e

T en der L a y in g
1 2 3 4
a n d jo in t in g
E x ca v a tion
o f tr e n ch
I n c o r r e ct R ep r ese n ta tio n
 P u r ch a sin g &
3
S u p p ly o f p ip e

E x ca v a tion L a y in g
1 2 4 5
T en der of tr en ch a n d jo in t in g
Correct Representation
A

4 D
Logical Purpose B

6
B E
5
C
 But activity B is having dual identity which is logically wrong.
 This u maintained by introducing two dummies B1 & B2 as shown above.

B 5 D
1

B
4 7

B 2
6 E
C
Rules for providing dummies:
If dummy is the only activity coming out from a node and terminating into some other
node . The dummy can be removed and the two nodes at the two ends of dummy can be
merged into one.

A B A B

I n co r r ect R e p r e s en t a tion C o r r e ct R ep r es e n ta t io n
 If two or more activities, emanating from different nodes and having same set of
preceding activities then the two activities should emanate from a single node.

A
I
E E 1 G
1 3 5 7
J
B
E 2

C F 1
K
F F 2 H
2 4 6 8
L
D
 A
I
E
B
G J

C H
F K

L
D

If two or more activities having same set of successors, and succeeding activities are
having other predecessors as well, the two activities should terminate into one single
node.
Dummy activities which shows predecessor relations already implied by other
activities are called as Redundant dummies, and can be removed.

A B D
1 2 3 6
F
B 1 7
C
G
E
4 5
 Network rules
2

1 3

4
2 4 2 4

1 6 1 6
3 5 3 5
W ron g R ep r esen ta tion C o r r e ct R e p r es e n ta t io n

Time flow is from left to right i.e. arrows denoting activities should point from left to
right. However, if arrow is vertical it may point upward or downward.
Numbering of events - Fulkerson’s rule
 Number the initial event as ‘1’.
 All the arrows coming out of initial event (1) are neglected. This will create one or
more new initial events.
 Number these new initial events as 2 and 3.
 Again neglect all emerging arrows from these newly numbered events which will
create a few more new initial events.
 Follow step (3).
 Continue this operation till last event is reached.
Skip Numbering

 In bigger networks, extensive modifications are frequently required to be made

either before the network is finalized or during the progress of the project.

 In such projects there should be a provision of adding new events and numbering
them without re-numbering the other events of the network.

 This can be achieved by a process called as SKIP Numbering.

Error’s in Network Diagram
Cyclic/Looping error
B

A C

 Dangling Error: Project is completed when all its

activities are over, but following situation can not
arise in any case because a network diagram (or a
process) can not have two end points.
 Wagon Wheel Error: This is the most difficult error to be spot and this can be
found after examining the entire network diagram in detail. This is a conceptual
error, as there may be no event taking place at this point in the following network.

A A
D
B E B

C F C

Assumed Case Actual Case

 Objective Questions
1. Match List-I (Item) with List-II (Characteristic) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
A. Activity 1. Resource less element
B. Event 2. Resource consuming element
C. Dummy 3. Spare time
D. Float 4. Instantaneous stage
Codes:
A B C D
(a) 1 4 3 2
(b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 2 4 1 3
(d) 3 4 1 2
2. The network rules are common to all activity-on-arrow networking systems. The
use of computers for making computations may impose certain rules. Which of
the following basic rules of network logic are correct?
1. Before an activity may begin, all the activities preceding it must be complete
2. Any two events may be directly connected by no more than one activity.
3. Event numbers must not be duplicated in a network.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
3. The total number of errors in the given AOA network is
7
3

1 2 4 6 8

(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
4. Activities A and B can be started independently. Activity C follows activity A, and
activity D follows activities B and C. Activity E follows activity B and precedes
activity F. The activities D and F merge at the objective event. Which one of the
following is the correct network of the project?
C C
A A
D D

(a) (b) F B
F
B
E
E

C C
A
A D
D

(c) (d) F
B
F
B E
E
5. In the network shown in the figure the activity 4-5 can be started only when
3 6
(a) activity 2-3 is completed

(b) activity 2-4 is completed

1 2 7

(c) activity 3-4 is completed

(d) activity 2-4 and 3-4 both are completed 4 5

6. Match List-I (Activity type) with List-II (Representation by) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
A. Artificially introduced 1. A single thick arrow
B. Critical 2. A single arrow
C. Non-critical type 3. An arrow emerging from an event but not
entering into any event
D. Dangler 4. A dotted arrow
Codes:
A B C D
(a) 4 1 2 3
(b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 4 3 2 1
(d) 2 1 4 3
7. Consider the following statements:
1. A dummy activity is artificially introduced in a network when necessary.
2. A dummy activity consumes some time.
3. A dummy activity is represented by a dotted arrow.
4. A dummy activity must necessarily be introduced in every network.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3(b) 1 and 3
(c) 2, 3 and 4(d) 1 and 2
8. Assertion (A): A dummy’ job is assigned ‘zero’ time to perform.

Reason (R): It is used mainly to specify precedence relationship

Ans. (a)
 CHAPTER - 3

Programme Evaluation
Review Technique
 Introduction
 Pert was developed by the U.S Navy during the late 1950’s to accelerate the
development of the Polaris Fleet Ballistic Missile.
 PERT, is abbreviated form which stands for, Program Evaluation and Review Technique,
is used for planning, scheduling and monitoring the project.
Time estimates
 A project is composed of many diversified activities which contribute to its completion.
 Total project duration depends on the time taken by each activity.
 Deterministic approach : Planner has enough knowledge about the activity and gives a
single estimate of the duration which is almost accurate.
 Probabilistic Approach : Planner does not have much idea about the activity as there is
little or no past history about it. The limits with in which the duration will lie, is
estimated.
Optimistic Time Estimate (t0)
 It is the minimum time required for an activity if everything goes perfectly well without
any problems or adverse conditions developed during the execution of the activity.
Pessimistic Time Estimate (tp)
 It is the maximum time required for an activity if everything goes wrong and abnormal
situations prevail.
Most Likely time Estimate (tl/tm)
 It is time required to complete the activity if normal conditions prevail.
Frequency distribution

N u m b er o f A ctiv ities
B

A
C

t0 tm tp
tim e

 In this curve point A corresponds to the optimistic time t 0, point C corresponds to

pessimistic time tp and point B corresponds to most likely time tm.
 If the frequency distribution curve is symmetrical about modal axis it is known as a
normal curve, otherwise it is said to be Skewed which may be left or right side as shown
in figure below.
F req u en cy

F req u en cy

F req u en cy
t0 = 4 tm = 7 tp = 1 0 t0 = 4 tm = 5 tp = 1 0 t0 = 4 tm = 9 tp = 1 0

N orm al C u rve L e f t-S k e w e d C u r v e R i g h t -S k e w e d C u r v e

 Mean, variance and standard deviation of the distribution
 Mean Time : It is defined as algebraic sum of time durations taken by various jobs
divided by number of jobs. It is also called as Average Time or Mean of the distribution.
 Deviation : It is the difference between the time under consideration and the mean
time.
S=x– x
d = deviation of any value x from the mean time value.
x = value under consideration.
2 (x – x)2
Variance  2  : It is mean of the square of deviations.  
2

n n
Standard deviation (s) : It is the square root of variance (x – x)2
   2

n
Probability Distribution
 Symmetrical curve : Normal/Gaussian/bell shaped distribution

P r ob a b ilit y
P r o b a b ilit y

Unsymmetrical curve : (b)-distribution.

PERT network usually follow b-distribution. t0 tm tp t0 tm tp

tim e tim e
L e f t S k e w e d - d i s t r i b u t i o n R ig h t sk e w e d  - d istr ib u tio n
curve curve
Normal probability distribution
 Approximately 68% of all the values of the normal probability distribution curve lie with
in the range from the average. It means that shaded area of the curve between
x =x –  to x  x 68%
 isof total area.

x – 3 x – 2 x –  x x   x  2 x  3
 Approximately 95% of all the values of normal probability distribution curve lie with in
the range from the average. It means that area of curve between
x  x – 2 to xis95%
x  of
2total area.

x 3 x 2 x  x x   x  2 x  3
 Approximately 99.7% of all the values of normal probability distribution curve lie with
in from the average. It means that area of curve betweenx  x – 3 toisx99.7%
 x  3of total
area.
2
tp – t0 t –t 
Standard deviation   Similarly, Variance    p 0 
2

6  6 

It is observed that s or s2 independent of most likely time tm.

Beta probability distribution
 Most of the activities of Pert network, follows Beta (b) – probability distribution curve.
 b – distribution curve is not symmetrical about its apex, it can be either left or right
skewed.
 Individual activities generally have b distribution which can be left or right skewed. If
large number of activities are taken together, the skewedness will die out and for
overall project time, the probability distribution function will normal distribution.
Expected Time (te) of An Activity
 The average or mean time taken for the completion of an activity is called as Expected
time.
t0  4ttm  p
te 
6
Expected time for Activities in Series
Event time
 Earliest Expected Event occurrence time (TE)
 It is the minimum time in which an event may occur.
 Sometime it is also known as Earliest Expected time.
TEj  TEi  tiej
 TE (Successor event) = TE (Predecessor event) + te (activity)
Latest Allowable occurrence Time (TL)
 It is the maximum time of an event by which it may be allowed to occur without
affecting the completion time of the project.

i j
TL TL
ij
te
i j

TLi  TLj – tiej

TLi  Minimumof  TLj – tiej  ,  TLj – tije  ,  TLj – tiej  

Slack
 It is denoted by S
S = TL – T E
Types of Slack
 Depending on the values of TL & TE, Slack can be positive, zero and negative.
Positive Slack (S > 0)
 Positive Slack is obtained when TL is more than TE (i.e. TL > TE) for an event.
+Ve, S = TL – TE
 This event is ahead of schedule by time period S
 Condition of excess resources deployed.
Zero Slack (S = 0)
 Zero Slack is obtained when TL is equal to TE for an event.
S(0) = TL – TE
 This event is on schedule and can not afford to have any sort of delay.
 Resources deployed are adequate or just enough.
Negative Slack (S < 0)
 A negative Slack is obtained when TL is less than TE for an event.
S(–ve) = TL – TE
 This event is behind the schedule by the time period equal to Slack of that event.
 Resource deployed are not adequate enough.
Critical path

 A critical path is the path in a project network, which commencing from the initial
event, connects the events having zero or minimum Slack times, and terminates at the
end event.

 Activities along the critical path are called as critical activities.

 In case of multiple critical path we have to determine the path which is most critical.
 Most critical path in a network diagram having multiple critical path will be the critical
path which has larger variance (or larger standard deviations) along the path.
 Variance of a path can be calculated as per central limit theorem which states that
variance of a path is the sum of variance of activities along that path.

Variance of a path or critical path = Sum of variance of activities along that

path/critical path.

Standard deviation of a path or critical path =Square root of Sum of variance of

activities along that path/critical path.
 Probability of completion of project
 The probability of completion of the activity within some other time t would be given
by ratio of the area under curve up to the vertical line at t and total area under the
curve.
C
P r ob a b ility F u n ction

D
E

A B

t0 tm tE t tp
T im e
Areaunder ACE
 Probability of completion of the activity with in time t =
Areaunder ACB
 1
 The probability of completion of the project in time TE is 2

 Central Limit Theorem : states that in any project if there are n activities involved each
having its own time of completion and its own b-distribution

 The distribution of time for the completion of the project as a whole will approximately
be a normal distribution with mean te and variance given by

te = te1 + te2 + te3 + ......ten

2  12  22  23  ......  n2
Procedure

 Step–1 : Determine the standard deviation along the critical path. According to central
limit theorem.
  2i j

  sumof variablesalongcriticalpath

2
 tpi j – ti0j 
ij  
2

 6 
Step–2 : Determine
TS – TE
Z

Z = Probability factor or normal deviate
TS = Scheduled completion time
TE = Expected completion time.
Step–3 : Find % probability with respect to the normal deviate Z from the table.
(a) When Z is (+ve) : TS is at the right of TE and chances of completing the project is more
than 50%.
(b) When Z is (O) : TS is coinciding with TE and chances of completing the project is 50%.
(c) When Z is (–ve) : TS is at the left of TE and chances of completing the project is less
than 50%.
 Objective Questions
1. Consider the following features/factors:
1. Projects are the non-repetitive type.
2. Time requirement need not be known.
3. Time required is known precisely.
4. Events have been established for planning.
5. Emphasis given to activities of project.
PERT is preferred for planning because of
(a) 1, 2 and 4(b) 3, 4 and 5
(c) 1, 3 and 4(d) 1, 2 and 5
2. Given that
t = the duration of various jobs
tm = mean time of different durations
n = number of observations
The standard deviation is given by

t
(a) n (b) t – tm
(tt m )2 (tt m )2
n n
(c) (d)
3. The probability distribution taken to represent the completion time in PERT analysis
is
(a) gamma distribution(b) normal distribution
(c) beta distribution (d) log-normal distribution
4. In PERT analysis, the time estimates of activities and probability of their occurrence
follow
(a) Normal distribution curve (b) b-distribution curve
(c) Poisson’s distribution curve (d) Binomial distribution curve
5. The probabilistic time is

tto  p  tm tto  p  4tm

(a)    (b)
3 6

to  4ttp  m
to  2ttp  m

(c)    (d)
6 4

where to = Optimistic time

tp = Pessimistic time

tn = Most likely time

6. If ‘a’ is the optimistic time, ‘b’ is the pessimistic time, and ‘m’ is most likely time of
an activity, then what is the expected time of activity?
amb a  2m  b
(a) 3(b) 5
a  4m  b a  3m  b
(c) 6(d) 6
7. Which one of the following techniques is most suitable in case of research and
development type of activity?
(a) Critical Path Method
(b) Project Evaluation and Review Technique
(c) Bar Chart
(d) Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique
8. Consider the following statements:
1. PERT is activity-oriented and adopts deterministic approach.
2. CPM is event-oriented and adopts probabilistic approach.
3. PERT is event-oriented and adopts probabilistic approach.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only
9. The area under the -distribution curve is divided into two equal halves by vertical
ordinate through
(a) expected time (b) optimistic time
(c) most likely time (d) pessimistic time
10. In a PERT network, the activity durations are given as t0 (optimistic time), tp
(pessimistic time) and tm (most likely time). What is the variance of the activity?
t0  4ttm  p  ttp  0 
(a) (b)  6 
6  
2
 ttp  0 
(c)  6(d)  None of these
 
11. Slack time in PERT analysis
(a) is minimum for critical activities (b) can never be less than zero
(c) can never be greater than zero (d) is always zero for critical activity
12. Negative slack occurs when
(a) dummy activities do not exit (b) dummy activities are large in number
(c) events stick to their schedule (d) deficiency of resources occurs
13. Assertion (A): The probability of completion of a multi-path project at the expected
project completion duration is 50%
Reason (R): The standard deviate for the critical path duration is zero.
Ans. (c)
14. Assertion (A): In analysing a construction project using PERT, even though the type
of distribution may vary from one activity to another, the distribution function for
the completion of the whole project will be approximately of a bell-shaped
distribution curve.
Reason (R): This assumption is in accordance with central theorem.
Ans. (a)
15. Assertion (A): PERT is used in such situations where durations of activities are
known with certainty.
Reason (R): In PERT three different activity times are used to estimate the expected
time.
Ans. (d)
16. Assertion (A): PERT is a deterministic model.
Reason (R): PERT makes the assumption that the optimistic and pessimistic times
are about equally likely to occur.
Ans. (d)
 CHAPTER - 4

Critical Path Method

 Introduction
 Critical path method, commonly abbreviated as CPM, it closely resembles PERT in
many aspects, but it was independently developed.
 M.R. Walker and J.E. Kelley of Ramination rand were involved in development of CPM
for the construction of chemical plants in united states.
Comparison between CPM and PERT
PERT
(1) Network diagram is event oriented.
(2) It uses probabilistic approach and is
suitable for research & development
and non repetitive project.
(3) 3 time estimates are given for
completion of an activity.
(4) Follows distribution.
CPM
(1) Network diagram is activity oriented.
(2) It uses Deterministic approach and is
suitable for repetitive type of project.
(3) Single time estimate is given for each
activity.
(4) Follows Normal distribution.
 PERT
(5) Cost of project is directly proportional
time and hence to minimize the project
cost the project completion time is
minimized.
(6) Critical events are identified by using
the concept of slack.
(7) Critical path will be path joining the
critical events.
CPM
(5) Cost model has to be developed using
which min. cost of the project is found.
(6) Critical activities are identified by using
concept of float.
(7) Critical path will be the path joining all
the critical activities.
CPM – Networks
Time estimate of an Activity
 CPM is concerned with problems which do not involve significant uncertainties and
hence deterministic approach is used.
 In CPM estimated activity time is represented simply by t, is directly used for network
analysis.
Event Time
Earliest occurrence time (TE)
 It is earliest time at which an event can occur i.e. the time by which all the activities
leading to an event under consideration are complete. It is also called as Earliest Event
time.
Latest allowable occurrence time (TL)
 It is latest (delayed) time by which an event must be completed to such that the
project completion time is not affected.
Float
 Float indicates the time by which, starting or finishing of an activity can be delayed
without affecting the project completion time
 Float is associated with an activity and is analogous to the term slack.
 Maximum available time = LFT – EST
Free Float
 It is defined as the amount of time by which an activity can be delayed without
affecting the EST of succeeding activity.
In other words it is that portion of total float that can be used by an activity without
delaying any succeeding activity.

FF TEj (TEi tij )

FF FT S j
 where, Sj = slack for event j or slack of head event of activity i–j.
Independent Float
 It is the amount of time by which an activity can be delayed when all the preceding
activities are completed as late as possible and all succeeding activities started as
early as possible.
 Independent float can also be defined as the excess of minimum available time over
the required activity duration.
FID  FF  Si
Interfering Float (FIT)
 It is defined as difference of Total float and free float of an activity.
 It is also equal to the slack of head event of head activity
FID = FT – FF = Sj
 Super critical, Critical And Subcritical Activities
 Negative Total Float (FT <0)
 If the maximum available time for an activity is less the activity time, the total float
will have a negative value.
 For such activities, activity time are adjusted by deploying extra resources such that
total float either becomes zero or positive, from the original negative value.
 Total Float Zero (FT = 0)
 If the maximum available time for an activity is equal to the activity time then for this
activity total float will be zero.
 Activities for which total float is equal to zero, is known as critical activity, because
such activity demands above normal attention with no freedom of delay.
Total float positive (FT > 0)
 If the maximum available time for an activity is more than the activity time then for
this activity total float will have positive value.
 Activity for which total float is positive is known as subcritical activity. Demanding
normal attention but allowing some freedom of action.
Critical path
 The longest path time wise in a project, this time also gives project duration.
 In CPM critical path passes through the critical activities i.e. activities having total float
equal to zero or minimum.
 In CPM critical path passes through those events where slack is zero. Although this is a
necessary condition but it is not sufficient condition.
 Objective Questions
1. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the lists:
List-I List-II
A. PERT 1. Activity based
B. Node 2. Imaginary activity
C. Dummy 3. End of job
D. CPM4. Event oriented
Codes:
A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 1 3 2 4
(d) 4 2 3 1
2. Match List-I (Description of activity floats) with List-II (Names of the floats) and select
the correct answer using the codes given the lists:
List-I
A. Earliest start time of successor activity minus earliest start time of activity in
question minus the activity duration
B. Time available for an activity performance minus the duration of the activity
C. Excess of minimum available time over the required activity duration
D. Difference between total and free float of an activity
List-II Codes :
1. Total A B C D
2. Free (a) 1 2 3
3. Interfering 4
4. Independent float (b) 1 2 4 3
(c) 2 1 3
4
(d) 2 1 4 3
3. From the network shown in the figure below (the number on each arrow denotes
the time duration of activity in days), the earliest start time, in days for activity 5–6 is

1 4
3
1 4

1 5 6

4
2
2
4 5

(a) 8 (b) 7
(c) 9 (d) 11
4. The flow net of the activities of a project are shown in the network given below
indicating the duration of the activities along their arrows.
The critical path of the activities is along
(a) 1 2 4 5 7 8 E
3 6
3 G
B 4
(b) 1 2 3 6 7 8 8
A H
1 2 7 8
7 2
(c) 1 2 3 5 7 8 C F
3 8
D
4 5
(d) 1 2 4 5 3 6 7 8 4
5. Consider the following pairs:
1. Difference between total float and free float : Interfering float
2. Sum of independent float and tail slack : Free float
3. Sum of independent float, tail slack and interfering float : Total float
Which of these pairs are correctly matched?
(a) 1, 2 and 3(b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
6. Consider the following statements regarding CPM technique of project planning:
1. The critical path consists of those activities for which the total float is zero.
2. Independent float is expressed as the difference between total float and the
slack at the head event.
3. It is not possible to complete an activity earlier than the crash time.
Which of these statements are correct ?
(a) 1, 2 and 3(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
7. Which one of the following is associated with a critical activity in a A-O-A network?
(a) Maximum float (b) Minimum float
(c) Zero float (d) Free float
8. Consider the following statements of network:
1. Only one time estimate is required for each activity.
2. Three time estimates for each activity.
3. Time and cost are both controlling factors.
4. It is built-up of event-oriented diagram.
Which of the above statements are correctly applicable to CPM network?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
9. Consider the following statements:
1. Total float can affect all activities in the chain.
2. Free float can affect only the preceding activities.
3. Independent float affects only the particular concerned activity.
Which of these statements/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
10. Consider the following statements:
A critical activity in a CPM network has
1. the longest duration of all activities
2. zero total float
3. zero free float
4. the shortest duration of all activities
Which of the statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4
11. Whenever an activity has zero total float, then
(a) free float of the activity must be zero but independent float need not be zero
(b) independent float need not be zero
(c) free float and independent float both must be zero
(d) free float and independent float both need not be zero
12. Assertion (A) : Interference float is the event slack at the head node of an activity.
Reason (R) : Interference float cannot be shared by any other activity.
Ans. (c)
13. Assertion (A): The delay in the performance of a critical activity will delay the
completion of the project.
Reason (R): The float of critical activity is negative.
Ans. (c)
CHAPTER - 5

Crashing
 Introduction
 Project times are determined by locating the critical and subcritical paths in the project
network.
 It is observed that in construction projects, time is C ost r ises
if p r o ject is
crash ed
related to project cost, but this relationship is not
linear. T im e -C os t
C urve
 To find the minimum cost, a cost model/time cost

T ota l C ost
relationship/project cost function, has to be
developed. C ost rise
if p r o ject is
 The cost model shows “relationship of the cost” M in im u m p rolon g ed
C ost
versus “the completion time”. Its ordinate
represents the cost and the abscissa has a time O p tim u m
D u r a tion

scale as shown in the figure below. D u r a tion

 Project cost or total project, in any project cost consists of two separate cost.
T ota l cost

D ir ect cos t I n d ir ect cos t

O u ta g e loss O v er h ea d s
Indirect Cost
 Indirect cost of a project are those expenses which can not be associated or
assigned to any individual activity of the project,
 Indirect cost include overhead charges, for example : establishment charges,
insurance charges, expenditure for maintenance of services during operations.
 Indirect cost also include loss in profit or liquidity damages or penalty for delay in
project complication, which is known as Outage Loss.
Variation of Indirect cost with time
e
C u rv
st
t Co
e c
T ota l I n d irect C ost
I n d ir
al
T ot
g e L oss
a
Out

O ver H ead s

P r oject D u r a tion
I n d ir ec t C o st (O v e r h e a d + O u ta g e L o ss)

Indirect cost always increase with time.

Direct Cost
 The project has highest cost corresponding to
C r a sh cost,C
crash duration and normal cost corresponding c

to normal direction.
 Therefore we have two type of costs and two

T ota l C ost
type of times.
 Normal time (tn). It is the standard time that a
estimator will assign to an activity.
 Crash time (tc). It is the minimum possible N o r m a l c o s t ,C n

time in which an activity can be completed by tc tn

C ra sh N or m a l d u r a tion
assigning extra resources. D u r a tion
D u r a tion

 Normal cost : It is the direct cost of an activity associated with the normal time.
 Crash cost : If is the direct cost of an activity corresponding to the crash time.
Optimum cost and optimum duration.
 Total project cost = Direct cost + Indirect cost.
 Such curve will have a point A where the tangent drawn to the curve would be
horizontal.
 The total cost of the project will be minimum at this point which is called as
optimum cost of the project and time corresponding to this point A is called as
optimum project duration.
 If the project duration is increased total cost will increase, while if project duration is
equal to the crash time, project cost will be the highest.
In the process of reducing the project time, efforts should be made to achieve
optimum duration such that project cost is minimum.
Cost slope/Slope of Direct cost curve

Cc  Cn crashcost  normalcost
Cost slope  
ttn  c Normaltime crashtime

 Crashing potential of an activity = normal time – crash time.

Cost slope is helpful in project cost analysis of direct cost.
Crashing
 The process of reduction of total project duration along the longest path (time wise)
of the network i.e. along the critical path to obtain the optimum project cost and
optimum duration is called as crashing.
Procedure
1. Draw the network diagram
2. Perform the analysis to determine the Critical path.
3. Indicate the critical path along the network diagram or time line diagram.
4. Find the cost slope of each activity.
5. Start crashing the activity along the critical path having minimum (or least cost
slope).
6. Each activity is shortened or crashed until its crashing potential is exhausted or a
new critical path is formed.
7. If new critical path is formed, reduce the combination of critical activities having
minimum cost slope, and continue till there is no further scope of crashing.
8. For each crashing note down the cost implication.
9. Calculate the indirect cost and saving for early completion, date or time wise.
10. Calculate the cumulative effect of direct and indirect cost and savings for early
completion.
11. Plot the data by selecting a suitable scale with time along the abscissa (Y axis) and cost
along the ordinate axis (x-axis).
12. Lowest point of the project cost curve will indicate the lowest cost and the
corresponding optimum completion time.
 Objective Questions
1. Consider the following statements:
Crashing a project in terms of its duration would result in
1. an increase in the indirect cost
2. a decrease in the indirect cost
3. a decrease in the direct cost
4. an increase in the direct cost
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
2. In the time-cost optimization, using CPM method for network analysis, the crashing
of the activities along the critical path is done starting with the activity having

(a) longest duration

(b) highest cost slope

(c) least cost slope

(d) shortest duration

3. Match List-I (Cost) with List-II (Feature) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
A. Optimal cost 1. Activity related
B. Overhead cost 2. Developed by crashing process
C. Direct cost 3. Project-related
D. Indirect cost 4. Contained in, or contributing exclusively to
the related product
Codes:
A B C D
(a) 4 3 2 1
(b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 4 1 2 3
(d) 2 3 4 1
4. In the time-cost optimisation of a project, the project can be crashed by expediting
(a) all activities on the critical path
(b) critical activities having minimum cost slope
(c) activities on sub-critical path
(d) critical activities having maximum cost slope
5. Overhead expenses on a project are included in
(a) indirect cost (b) direct cost
(c) variable cost (d) fixed cost
6. Scheduling helps in
(a) planning for the project
(b) financial control of the project
(c) preparing the estimate for the project
(d) carrying out the project in an orderly and effective manner
7. Assertion (A): The time-grid diagram facilitates to readout the float for any activity
by inspecting the diagram

Reason (R): In the time-grid diagram, floats are represented by broken horizontal
lines as appropriate.

Ans. (a)

8. Assertion (A) : Project-time-cost schedules (inclusive of indirect costs) always show

decreasing overall costs for decreasing overall project duration (so long as such
compression is feasible).

Reason (R) : Generally, the incremental rate increases as consumption of a resource

increases.

Ans. (d)
9. Consider the following statements :
Assertion (A) : In assigning activity durations in developing an AOA network, the
technology to be adopted is inherently considered but not the rate of utilization (or
consumption) of resources (or inputs).
Reason (R) : The adopted technology dictates the compatibly preferred
consumption pattern of the inputs.
Ans. (a)
10. Consider the following statements:
Assertion (A): Crashing of construction duration admits of better optimal resource
utilisation.
Reason (R): Crashing of activities in a construction project network tends to
increase the number of critical activities.
Ans. (b)
 CHAPTER - 6

Updating & Resource

Allocation
 Introduction
 Once the scheduled plan has been prepared and execution has started, a check or
control over the progress of work has to be exercised in order to complete the work
by target or scheduled date.
Controlling process involves comparison between actual achievement with original
plans at regular intervals and if required take necessary action to get things back on
schedule.
Data Required For Updating
1. Original network.
2. Original network calculation chart
3. Stage/Instant of time at which updating is done
4. Execution/position of project at the stage of updating.
5. New information and knowledge which will affect the duration of activities.
When to update
1. Updating is done whenever there is a major change in the duration of any of the
activity.
2. For small projects or smaller duration projects, there must be frequent updating
because any slippage occurring might have significant effect on the project.
3. For large project or large duration project, the process of updating must be increased as
the project progresses towards the completion. At initial stages updating is not very
critical since few slippages can be absorbed during the project.
Important points
1. On any major change in duration of an activity updating is mandatory.
2. For critical activities updating is mandatory.
3. Any activity is neither added or deleted.
4. Critical path may change during updating and hence critical activities may also get
change.
Introduction
 A resource is a physical variable quantity such as material, labour, equipment, time or
space, which are required for carrying out a project.
 Various activities of project should be scheduled in such a way that the demand for
various resources is more or less uniform during the project duration.
 This can be achieved by following two approaches.
 Resource smoothing
 Resource leveling
Resource smoothing
 In resource smoothing the total project duration is not changed but the activities
having floats are rescheduled such that a uniform demand for the resources is
achieved.
Important points
 Project duration is not changed.
 Resources are unlimited
 Critical path remains unchanged.
 Steps involved in resource smoothing.
 List out the resources required for the completion of various activities and identify
the one which are considered important.
 Prepare the resource profiles by carrying out the resource aggregation exercise and
cumulative resource requirements for each unit are plotted in the form of
histograms.
 Periods of peak and low demands are identified and an attempt is made to lower the
peaks and fill up the gaps.
 As there is no constraint on the availability of resource, make the demand as uniform
as possible.
 This can be achieved by altering the start and finishing times of the non critical
activities as these activities will have certain amount of float.
Resource leveling
 In resource leveling the activities are rescheduled such that maximum or peak
demand of the resource does not exceed the availability of resources.
Important points
 Project duration might be changed.
 Resource are limited.
 Critical path may get changed.
Steps involved in Resource leveling
1. Lower the peak demand of the resources by shifting the resource input on non
critical activities.
2. If required sub critical and critical activities are also changed or modified to bring the
peak demand below the specified levels. Hence, completion of project might get
delayed due to resource constraint.
3. Either increase the duration of critical activities in series to reduce the peak demand
of rare or scare resource. This will increase the project duration.
4. Re-arrange the activities in descending order of the magnitude of positive float, as
resource can be easily shifted from activities which possess large float. At first lower
the high demand of resources by use of free floats. Then critical activities can be
modified at last, if required.
 Objective Questions
1. What is the significant purpose of monitoring a project through its implementation
phase?
(a) To fix responsibility for delays
(b) To rerail the project with control over cost over-run
(c) To rerail the project with minimum time over-run
(d) To rerail the project with optimal time and cost over-run
2. What is the process of incorporating changes and rescheduling or replanning called?
(a) Resource allocation (b) Resource smoothing
(c) Resource leveling (d) Updating
3. Consider the following statements:
Resource leveling means
1. economical utilization of resources
2. gradual increase in resources
3. adjustment of resources to have the least variations.
4. complete revamping of resources to suit the requirements
5. validating network depending on resource constraints
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 3 and 5 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
4. Which of the following rules should be followed while doing the resource
scheduling?
1. CPM network logic must be maintained.
2. Activities on the critical path must use normal crew size.
3. Activities on the non-critical path must use minimum crew size.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3(b) 1 and 2
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
5. The constraints in case of resource smoothing operation would be
(a) resources
(b) project duration time
(c) both resources and project duration time
(d) None of the above
6. In arriving at a resource-based schedule bar-chart for a construction project, the
following stages for planning of the work are involved:
1. Finalizing a network of activities.
2. Determining the optimal activity durations considering the relevant
parameters.
3. Computation of time and floats.
4. Developing the resource-based bar-chart and the corresponding histograms
and mass curves of resources.
5. Identification of the critical constraining resource.
6. Deciding the criteria for optimization.
The correct sequence of these stages in the planning of the work will be
(a) 1, 6, 2, 3, 5, 4 (b) 6, 2, 1, 3, 4, 5
(c) 1, 2 3, 6, 5, 4 (d) 2, 1, 3, 5, 6, 4
7. Assertion (A) : In resource leveling, the project completion time is not extended
even though there is constraint in the availability of resources.
Reason (R) : There is generally a constraint against exceeding the project duration
time.
Ans. (d)
8. Assertion (A) : When attempting resource optimization, activity-time cost trade off
information could be gainfully employed.
Reason (R) : Generally, as activity time is extended beyond the minimum cost
duration, splitting of the activity duration is always possible.
Ans. (b)
9. Assertion (A) : In resource leveling approach of resource allocation, activity start
times are scheduled such that the peak demand for a particular resource remains
within available limit of the resources.
Reason (R) : In resource leveling approach of resource allocation, the total project
time is not changed.
Ans. (c)
 CHAPTER - 7

A-O-N Diagram
 Introduction
 In A-O-N system (Activity on Node Network system) sometimes called precedence
diagrams also, the nodes represent the activities and the arrow, their interdependence
or precedence relationships.
 Just like A-O-A networks, precedence networks represent the logical and sequential
inter-relationships between various component jobs or activities required to be
performed for the final objective of the project completion.
Representation of nodes in a-o-n networks
 Earliest start time (EST) and the latest start A ctiv ity
D escr ip tion
time (LST) are written just before the box E ST E F T
LST LF T
on the left hand side, above and below the
connecting line, the earliest finish time
(EFT) and the latest finish time (LFT) are
written on the right hand side of the box. D u r a tion A ctiv ity N o.
Logic of A-O-N networks
 Events have no places while activities have their places with durations. Numbering of
the activities are same as in A-O-A network.
 When a number of activities start simultaneously, an activity called DEBUT(D) is
provided as the first activity, though such an activity may not exist.

D
O

 Similarly when a number of activities finish together an activity is called finish Activity.

F
O
Salient Points
(1) Events has no place, hence this system is not suitable/applicable for PERT. While
Activities have their places with duration. Numbering of activities are same as in A-O-
A network.
(2) This system is self sufficient as it contains all activity times (EST, LST, EFT, LFT) on the
diagram it self. This enables efficient scheduling and controlling.
(3) Revision and modification can be carried out easily without affecting most of the
activities, i.e. few activities only have to be altered to incorporate changes in
duration, logic and activity sequence.
(4) This system eliminates the use of dummies thus logical relationship is established by
using arrows.
Advantages of A-O-N over A-O-A
(1) It is self sufficient and self explanatory as all activity times are shown on network it
self.
(2) It eliminates use of dummies.
(3) It can show activities which should be allowed to overlap each other or must be
separated by a time delay.
(4) Revision and modification can be carried out easily without affecting most of the
activities.
(5) Pre and post operation activities are clearly depicted.
 Objective Questions
1. Precedence network is also known as
(a) A-O-A network (b) A-O-N network
(c) A-N-O network (d) A-A-O network
2. Float calculations in A-O-N networks is
(a) Different from A-O-A networks is
(b) Same as A-O-A networks
(c) Involves a complicated procedure
(d) Dependent on backward pass computations.
3. Consider the following statements regarding AON diagram :
1. Each activity is represented by a circle.
2. The sucessor of the activity is connected by a directed arrow
3. The number of the activity and the amount of time required for its completion
are inserted in the job node.
4. An AON network contains a node for the start and a nod for a finish of the
project.
Which of these statement are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3(b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 3 and 4(d) 1, 2 and 4
4. Consider the accompanying A-O-N diagram :
Which one of the following A-O-A diagrams correctly represents this A-O-N diagram ?
B

A C E G

D F

2 5 1 2 3 4 7

(a) 1 (b) 4 7
5
3 6 6

3
3

(c) (d) 1 2 4 5 6
1 2 4 5 6
5. Which one of the following is relevant to Activity on Node (AON)?
(a) Dummy activities may be many
(b) There will be no dummy activities
(c) It is used for quite complex project
(d) It is easier to associate with time flow of activities.
 CHAPTER - 8

Engineering Economy
 Introduction
Concept of time value of money
 The rate of interest is used to determine the difference between, what is borrowed
and what is to be repaid.
Simple Interest
 It is calculated on the basis of a basic amount borrowed for the entire period at a
particular rate of interest. The amount borrowed is the principal for the entire period
of borrowing.
S.I. = P × n × i
S.I. = Simple Interest
P = Principal amount, lend or borrowed.
n = number of years (Interest period)
i = Interest rate per year (per interest period.)
Compound Interest
When the interest charge for any interest period is based on the principal amount plus
the any interest charges up to the beginning of that period, the interest is called as
Compound Interest.
C.I. = (P ×(1 + i)n) – P
C.I = Compound Interest
P = Principal Amount
i = Rate of interest
n = Number of years (Interest Period).
Cash flow diagrams

1000 1100

100 100 100 100 100

100 100 100 100 100

1100 1000
B or row er P oin t of v iew L en d er P oin t of v iew
Intrest formula for single payment series
i = the annual interest rate
n = the number of annual interest periods
P = Present sum of money i.e. Present worth at zero time
F = Future sum of money i.e. Future worth equal to the compound amount at
the end of n years
A = a single payment, in a series of n equal payments, made at the end of each
annual interest period
G = uniform period-by-period increase or decrease in amount (the arithmetic
gradient)
(a) Single Payment Compound Amount Factor (SPCAF) – Finding F when given P.

F
0 1 2 3 n–2 n–1
n

P
F
 (1  i)n  SPCAF
P
(b) Single Payment Present Worth Factor (SPPWF) – Finding P when given F

F
0 1 2 3 n–2 n–1
n

P
F
P  SPPWF
(1  i )n
Interest Formulae for equal payment series
Uniform Series Present Worth Factor (USPWF) – Finding P given A.

A A A A A A A A

1 2 3 4 5 n – 2 n – 1 n

P  (1  i )n – 1 
 n 
 USPWF
A  i (1  i ) 
Uniform Series Compound Amount Factor (USCAF) – Finding F when given A.

F  (1  i )n – 1 
  USCAF
A  i 


Sinking Fund Factor (SFF) – Finding A when given F

A  i 
   SFF
F  (1  i ) – 1 
n
 C o m p o u n d I n t r e st F a ct or

T o fi n d G iven F a cto r b y w h ich to F a ctor n a m e F u n ction a l

m u ltip ly w it h g iv en n ota tion

n
S in g le p a y m e n t co m p o u n d F 
F P (1 + i ) a m o u n t fa ct o r  ,i,n 
PAY M E N T

P 
S IN G L E

1 S in g le p a y m e n t p r e s e n t P 
P F n  ,i ,n 
(1  i ) w o r th fa cto r F 

(1  i ) n – 1 U n iform ser ies p resen t  P 

P A  ,i,n 
i (1  i ) n
w o r th fa cto r A 
U N IF O R M SE R IE S P A Y M E N T

i (1  i ) n A 
A P
C a p it a l r ec o v e r y fa ct or  ,i,n 
(1  i ) n  1  P 

(1  i ) n  1 U n iform ser ies com p ou n d  F 

 ,i,n 
F A
i
a m o u n t fa ct o r A 

i A 
S in k in g fu n d fa ct o r  ,i,n 
A F (1  i )  1 n  F 
NOMINAL & EFFECTIVE INTEREST RATE
 If the interest is compounded twice on thrice or more than once in a year then
effective interest rate is greater than nominal interest rate.
c
 i
 Effective Annual Interest Rate =  1   – 1
 c
Capitalised Cost
 Capitalised cost is the present worth of a uniform series of annuity of infinite period
(or perpetual service).
1 2 3 4 n = 
.... .. .......... ..... .... .............. ....... ..... ....
A A A A A A
P
 1  A
1 –
P  A  (1  i )  P P is often called as capitalized value of A.
  i
 i 
Comparison of Alternatives
Using cash-flow diagrams and time value of money, equivalence is studied to identify the
better alternative, using a common basis.
The most common basis of comparison are:
(a) The Present worth amount
(b) The Annual equivalent amount
(c) The Capitalized amount.
(d) The rate of Return method.
Present Worth Amount
In this method, present worth of the cash flow in the form of equivalent single sum is
calculated using an interest rate, sometimes also known as discounting rate.
This method is based on following condition:
1. Cash flow is known
2. Interest rate is known.

There can be two cases:

Case I - Alternative with equal service life
Case II - Alternative with unequal service life.
Annual Equivalent Amount
 In this method, cash flow is converted into a series of equal amount by at first
calculating the present worth amount and then multiplying it with Capital Recovery
factor.
 By observing the annual equivalent amount of each alternative comparison is done.
The Capitalized Amount
 This method is very useful to compare long – term projects.

 In this method, the annual equivalent amount obtained is assumed to extend for
'A'
infinitely long period and then Capitalized amount is obtained as i .
 Rate of return method
 It represents the interest rate which reduces the present worth amount of a series of
receipts and disbursements to zero for each alternative.
 In terms of economics, rate of return is interest earned on the unrecovered balance
of an investment such that unrecovered balance is zero at the end of investment life.
 Break even Analysis
 Break even Analysis is a graphical representation of the relationship between cost
and revenue for all possible volume of output.
 Break even analysis is basically done to find out the point at which total revenue
equals total cost & profit potential under varying conditions of out put and cost.
 Break Even point is therefore at which neither a profit nor a loss is incurred.
 Sometimes it is also called as Cost–Volume–profit studies.
 ses

ue
en
xp

en
t /E

v
s
Co

Re
A n g le of it
of V a r ia b le co st
in cid en ce Pr

C o s t /R e v e n u e

P r o fi t M a r g i n

ss
Lo

F ix e d cost

N o . o f O u tp u t U n its

Functions
1. Suitable for business firm to study cost revenue relationship.
2. Useful in making engineering decisions.
3. Useful in selection of favourable option of business.
4. Possibility of profit is determined for any rate of production.
5. It shows whether business is good or bad by angle of incidence.
Limitations
1. Break even analysis is a nice tool for small business.
2. It provides a static picture where as business processes are dynamic in nature
because the market conditions do not remains constant.
3. Revenue line may not be always a straight line.
4. Analysis of break even becomes difficult when company produces different/variety of
products.
5. Cost and revenue are related only with number of units produced.
Depreciation
 Depreciation is reduction in value of asset with the passage of time.
Types of Depreciation
(a) Physical Depreciation : It is physical impairment/wear and tear of an asset, primary
cause of physical depreciation is wear and tear because of its constant use such as
abrasion, shocks, vibration, impact, corrosion, chemical decomposition.
(b) Functional / Obsolescence Depreciation : It is loss in value of property due to change
in fashion, design or structure or inefficiency due to growing demand.
(c) Contingent Depreciation
• Accident due to liabilities
• Diseases (Pollution of water, parasites)
• Diminution of supply (natural gas, electricity, water etc.)
Salvage Value
 Value of an asset at the end of its utility period is called salvage value i.e. Resale
value at the end of a particular time.
 Salvage value implies that asset has further utility, but due to some reason it is for
selling.
 Scrap value: The value of asset when its utility is considered be as junk or scrap i.e.
useless other than selling as junk.
 Book value = Initial cost – Depreciation cost. This is the value of asset shown in
account books in a particular year.
Methods for Calculating Depreciation C i

C ost
(i) Straight line method :
In this method asset looses its value by a fixed amount every C s

year.
Ci = Initial cost of an asset at zero time. n
T im e (y e a r s )

Cs = Salvage value
n = life of asset
Bm = Book value at the end of period ‘m’
Dm = Depreciation charge during period ‘m’.
 Ci  C s
Dm 
n
Dm = D1 = D2 = Dn

 C C 
Bm  Ci  m  i s 
 n 

 C C 
Bn  Ci  n  i s   Cs
 n 
 At the end of its utility period book value becomes equals to salvage value.
 This method is used for all the assets which do not get obsolete during its utility
period i.e. they loose their value at constant rate e.g. Civil engineering equipments.
(ii) Decline Balance method/Constant percentage method:
This method is used for all the assets which looses their value at constant percentage
of its Book value.
D1 = Ci × FDB
where, FDB = Fixed decline Balance Rate at which depreciation occurs.
Ci = Initial cost
D1 = Depreciation at 1st year.
B1 = Ci – D1 = Ci – Ci × FDB
B1 = Ci (1 – FDB)
\ B2 = Ci (1 – FDB)2
\ Bn = Ci (1 – FDB)n
Let at the nth year Bn = Cs
\ Cs = Ci (1 – FBD)
Cs 
n
 s n
C
1

n    1  FDB FDB  1   
 Ci   Ci 
 It is most suitable for assets which have probability/fear of obsolescence before its
utility period e.g. Electronics equipment.
This method cannot be used when salvage value of asset is ‘zero’.
Double Decline Balance Method:
 In this method asset is assumed to loose its value by a fixed factor of the book value
i.e. double the straight line rate.
FDDB = Fixed factor for double decline balance method
2
FDDB =
n
The process of calculation of depreciation and book value at the end of each year is
same as decline balance method.
\ Bn = Ci (1 – FDDB)n .
 This method is useful for assets which are estimated to face obsoletes before
estimated life and hence large rate of depreciation is charged in the early life of
property.
Sum of Year Digit Method
 In this method the value of assets decreases at an decreasing rate which is similar to
FDDB, FDB.
 In this method, the digits corresponding to the number of each year of life are listed in
reverse order and then sum of these digits is calculated.
 General expression for the annual depreciation for any year (m) for life period = n
years is as below
  n  m  1 
Dm   Ci  Cs  
n n  1  
 
 2 
 This method also provides rapid depreciation during the early years life. But this
method enables the asset to be reduced to be zero value.
Sinking Fund Method
 Equal amount (D) is assumed to be deposited into a sinking fund at the end of each
year of the assets life.
 Sinking fund is ordinarily compounded annually, at the end of the estimated life, the
amount accumulated equals the total depreciation of the asset (Ci – CS).
 Depreciation amount is the sum of two components.
 The first component is the amount deposited into sinking fund and the second
component is the amount of interest earned on the accumulated value of the sinking
fund at the beginning of the particular year in question.
Let i be the rate of interest.
 First component of depreciation which is to be deposited equally at the end of each
year  i 
D   Ci – C s   
 (1  i) –1 
n
 Combining both factors into account, the depreciation for mth year by this method is
expressed as Dm = D[1 + i]m–1
If m = 1, 2, 3
D1 = D
D2 = D(1 + i)
D3 = D(1 + i)2
Dn = D (1 + i)n–1
 Difference between Depreciation & Obsolescence

DEPRECIATION OBSOLESCE NCE

(i) This is the functional loss in the value

(i) This is the physical loss in the value of
of the property due to change in
property due to wear and tear and
design, structure, fashion, utility,
decay etc.
demand etc.
(ii) I t depends upon its original condition,
(ii) I t depends upon the technological
quality of maintenance and mode of
advancement, art etc.
use.
(iii) Not dependent on age.
(iii) I t varies with age.
(iv) No method is available for calculation
(iv) There are several methods for
of obsolescence.
calculating the amount of depreciation.
Depletion
Depletion is the decrease in quantity of the resource for example removal of coal
from mine, timber from forest and etc.

costofproperty
Depletion for year   units sold during the year
no.ofunitsintheproperty
 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The profits and the associated probability of making the profits are given below in
respect of four projects:
Project Profit Probability of making
the profit
  1 15% 0.5
  2 10% 0.8
  3 12% 0.7
  4 11% 0.6
When the motive is maximization of expected profit, the correct order of preference
of these projects would be
(a) 1, 3, 4, 2 (b) 2, 3, 4, 1
(c) 3, 2, 1, 4 (d) 3, 4, 2, 1
2. With the usual notations, sinking fund factor is given by
i
(a) (1 + i)n (b) (1  i)n  1

1 i(1  i)n
(c) (1  i)n(d) (1  i)n  1
3. Which one of the following statements applies to the declining balance method of
depreciation accounting?
(a) Uniform write-off of cost throughout the service is aimed
(b) Greater write-off in the early years is aimed
(c) Smaller write-off in early years is aimed
(d) A varying rate of depreciation is applied on the basis of market value of the
asset
4. Sinking fund method is useful in
(a) depreciation (b) obsolescence
(c) liquidation (d) scrap value
5. Assertion (A) : The salvage value is less in the initial period of the equipment and
increases as the equipment ages.
Reason (R) : The salvage value of an equipment is the actual amount that can be
realized on a trade-in for a replacement machine.
Ans. (d)
 CHAPTER - 9

Fundamental of
Equipments
 Introduction
 The selection of construction equipment defines the construction method, which in a
way leads to the determination of time and cost for the project.

 Choice is made after considering many factors like nature of the project, cost of
equipment, depreciation, possibility of its future uses on other projects, its resale value
after certain period, the saving expected from the use of such equipments etc.
Classification of construction equipments
 On the basis of functions equipments can be grouped into
(a) Power Units
(b) Prime movers
(c) Tractors
(d) Material– Handling equipment
(e) Material–processing equipment
 Selection of construction equipment
 Use of Existing Equipment
 Availability of the Equipment
 Use of Standard Equipment
 Country of Origin
 Suitability for Future Use
 Suitability for Site Conditions
 Size of Equipment
 Versatility
 Suitability of Local Labour
 Annual maintenance and repair cost = 50 to 100% of annual depreciation but 100% is
a fair value.
Intial value – Salvage value
Annual depreciation 
Useful life of equipment
Economic life of construction equipment
 Physical life : The potential service life or time period, of an equipment before which
it physically becomes unable to produce a good or service.
 Economic life : It is defined as the time period over which an equipment is expected
to be use able, with normal repairs and maintenance, for the purpose it is hired.
 Fundamental of equipment
Rolling Resistance
 Rolling Resistance is a measure of force that must be overcome to pull roll a vehicle
over the surface. It is expressed in kg of tractive (friction) pull required to move each
gross tonne over a surface.
 The term rolling resistance can be considered analogous to dynamic coefficient of
friction (m).
Silent points

P
Rolling Resistance, R 
w

R = Rolling Resistance (kg/tonne)

P = Required tractive force (or average tension in tow cable) (kg)
W = Gross weight of vehicles (tonnes).
Grade Resistance
 Grade resistance is a measure of force that
icle
veh
is required to overcome to move a vehicle em e n t of
M ov
uphill (+ve grade)
 Grade assistance is a measure of force that n
= W si
nc e
assists vehicle movement on downhill (–ve resi
sta 
de
G ra
grade).

 Grade resistance is taken as 10kg/tonne of
total weight of unit for each 1% of grade. W W cos 

For low value of grade or , we can say that sin = tan

If Grade = tanq = 1%
Grade resistance for 1 tonne of weight on 1% grade q = tan–1 (0.01)
= 1 × sin 0.57293° = 9.99950 × 10–3 tonne  10 kg. q = 0.572938°
Total Resistance

 Total Resistance = Rolling Resistance ± Grade resistance

 Usable tractive effort = Available tractive effort – Total resistance.

Coefficient of Traction

 Traction is the maximum frictional force produced between the surface without
slipping.

 Now coefficient of traction may be defined as the factor by which the total load on
driving tyre or track should be multiplied in order to calculate the maximum possible
tractive force between the tyre or track and surface just before slipping will occur.

Usable Traction = Coefficient of Traction × Weight

Drawbar Pull
 Drawbar pull is used in connection with a crawler tractor.
 The drawbar pull is the hauling force [Pulling Force] (in kg) which a crawler tractor can
exert on a trailing load [to be pulled load].
 Drawbar pull varies inversely with the speed of each gear, it being highest in the
lowest gear and lowest in the top gear.
 The manufacturer supplies values of drawbar pull at different speeds and power. It is
based on the assumption that road surface has rolling resistance of 55 Kg/ tonne.

Effective Drawbar Pull = Available Drawbar pull ± Rolling resistance ± Grade resistance for
downgrade/upgrade.
Rimpull
 Rimpull is used in connection with a rubber/ wheel tractor.
 Rimpull is the force (in kg) that a rubber tyred tractor can exert between the rubber
tyres of driving wheels and the surface on which they travel. It is expressed in Kg.
 Rimpull is calculated as follows
Case –I. If enough traction [friction] is available i.e. slippage is eliminated. Rimpull is a
function of engine power and gear ratios between the engine and the drive wheels
375HP efficiency
MaximumRimpull 
Speedinmph
Note : Efficiency of Tractor may be assumed between 0.80 - 0.85
Case –II. If coefficient if traction is not enough and slippage starts before its rated capacity,
then
Maximum effective Rimpull = Total pressure between tyres & surface × Coefficient of
traction
Gradability
 Gradability is defined as the maximum slope (%), on which a crawler or wheeled
tractor, may move at uniform speed.
Stepwise procedure
 If rated drawbar pull is provided by manufacture, then apply a efficiency factor of 80 –
85% over it to obtain a Available drawbar pull of the tractor.
 Rolling resistance should be corrected as per actual site condition i.e. drawbar pull of
a crawler tractor from manufacturer’s specification is based on 55kg/ tonne.
Therefore if rolling resistance is other than 55kg/ tonne it should be accounted for.
 Now calculate the combined rolling resistance of tractor and hauling unit.
 Calculate, pull available to overcome grade resistance = Available drawbar pull –
Combined Rolling Resistance.
 Now Gradability is calculated by assuming 10 kg pull required per tonne of the
combined weight of tractor and hauling unit per 1° grade.
 CHAPTER - 10

Excavation Equipment
 Introduction
Tractor
 Primary purpose of a tractor is to pull or push loads, and it may be used also as mount
for many types of equipment such as bulldozer, shovel, dragline, hoe, trenchers etc.
 Types of Tractors

T r a cto r

C r a w ler T r a ctor W h eel T r a ctor

T w o w h eel T r a cto r F ou r w h eel T ra ctor

Crawler tractor v/s wheel-tractor
(a) Wheeled unit can travel 3 to 4 times faster than crawler units and have an additional
advantage where travel distances are long and travel speed is important.
(b) Crawler units are generally more costly than wheeled units due to expensive track
system.
(c) Crawler units are more compact and powerful and can handle heavier jobs of hauling
and digging as compared to wheeled units.
(d) Crawler tractor negotiate heavy load whereas a wheel tractor is useful for light loads.
(e) Wheeled units have wheel steering control and are easily maneuvered, while crawler
units have stick control for steering and need greater skill in operation.
(f) Transportation of crawler units over long distances is usually done on trailers due to
their slow speeds of travel and to avoid excessive strain on the tracks whereas
wheeled units can be self-driven over long distances.
(g) Crawlers tracks, if moved on pavements or tarred roads, are likely to damage them
unless fitted with special shoes.
(h) Crawler units generally require more skill in operation, maintenance and repairs than
wheeled units.
(i) A large number of track parts subjected to wear increase the operational cost of
crawler units.
Power Shovels
 Basically a shovel is a tool for digging, lifting, and moving bulk materials, such as soil,
coal, gravel, snow, sand, or ore.
 The basic parts of a power shovel include Mounting, Cab, Boom, Dipper stick, Dipper.
Crawler mounted Shovels
 It is mounted on crawler tracks.
 It is has very low travel speed.
 It exerts low pressure on the soil and hence suited for muddy and soft ground surface.
Rubber Tyre mounted Shovels
 It is mounted on Rubber- tyres.
 It has higher travel speeds are useful for small jobs where considerable travelling is
involved.
 It exerts considerable pressure on the soil surface hence suitable for road and the firm
ground surfaces.
Angle of Swing of Power Shovels
 The angle of swing of a power shovel is the horizontal angle, expressed in degrees,
between the position of the dipper when it is excavating and the position when it is
discharging/ unloading the load.
 If the ground surface is very soft and muddy soil, having large undulations, the
crawler-mounted shovel will be the only choice.
Optimum depth of cut
 Optimum depth of cut is that depth which produces maximum output and at which
dipper comes up with full load without excessive downward pressure and tension.
Output of Power Shovels
 Output of power shovel is expressed in m3/hour based on bank measure volume.

loosevolumeof dipper Actualtimeinsecondsperhour

Output of shovel    efficiency.
(1  Swellfraction) Cycletimeinseconds
Draglines

As the basic character of the machine is, dragging the bucket against the material to be
excavated, it is known as Dragline.
Advantages of Dragline :
 It does not have to go into the pit to excavate. It may operate on natural firm
ground.
 If it has a long boom then it can dispose of the earth in one operation without the
need for haul units.
 It can excavate below its level and under water.
 It can excavate trenches without shoring.
Disadvantage of Dragline
 One of the disadvantages of a dragline is that its output is only 75-80% that of a
power shovels.
Operation of Dragline
 Excavation is started by swinging the empty bucket to the digging position at the same
time loosen the drag and the hoist cables.
 Excavation is done by pulling the bucket toward the machine while maintaining
tension in the hoist cable.
 When the bucket is filled, the operator takes in the hoist cable while playing out the
drag cable.
 Dumping is done by releasing the drag cable.
 Filling the bucket, hoisting, swinging and dumping of the loaded bucket, followed in
that order, constitute one cycle.
Hoes
 Hoe is a long-handled hand implement equipped with a light blade and used to dig,
scrape, weed, or till (surface soil).

 Hoes are primarily used to excavate below the ground level or below the machine
track level. They are adapted to dig trenches, pits and basements.
 Due to their rigidity they are superior to draglines in operating on close-range work
and dumping into trucks.
Clamshells
 Clamshell is machine having characteristics of crane and dragline. Digging is done like
dragline and when bucket is full it works like crane.
 It has a bucket divided in to two halves which are hinged at top.
 These are used mainly for handling loose materials such as sand, gravel, crushed
stone, etc., and for removing materials from cofferdams, pier foundations, etc.
 Buckets have teeth, that can be easily removed also.
 The capacity of a clamshell bucket is usually given in m3.
Size of Clamshell Buckets

(a) heavy-duty type for digging,

(b) medium-weight type for general purpose,

(c) light-duty type for handling light materials.

 Bulldozers

 Bulldozers are very efficient excavating tools for short haul applications up to 100 m.
 It is essentially a heavy steel blade which is mounted on the front of a tractor. The
heavy blade attached to the tractor pushes the material from one place to another.
 The size of a bulldozer is indicated by the length and height of the blade.
Position of angles

 Bulldozers- In these blade is set perpendicular to the direction of movement. It

pushes the earth forward and dump to some place

 Angle Dozers- In these blade is set at an angle with the direction of movement. It
pushes the earth forward and to one side.

Based on mounting

 Wheel mounted

 Crawler mounted
Advantages of the crawler-mounted bulldozer:
 Ability to deliver greater tractive effort on soft, loose or muddy soil
 Ability to travel on muddy surfaces
 Ability to operate in rock formations, where rubber tyres may get damaged, which
may reduce the cost of maintaining haul roads
 Greater flotation because of lower pressures under the tracks
 Greater use-versatility on jobs.
Advantages of the wheel-mounted bulldozers:
 Higher travel speeds on the job or from one job to another
 Elimination of hauling equipment for transporting the bulldozer to the site
 Greater output, especially when significant travelling is required
 Less operator fatigue
 Ability to travel on bitumen roads without damaging the surface.
Advantages of the Cable controlled bulldozers
 Simple to install, operate and control
 Easy in repairing
 Reduction in the danger of damaging a machine
Advantages of the Hydraulically controlled bulldozers
 Able produces a high down pressure on blades to force blades into ground
 Able to maintain a precise setting of the position of the blade.
Output of Bulldozers
Output of a bulldozer is defined as the bank measure volume, it handles per hour.
Output of a bulldozer in bank measure volume/hr =

Ratedmoldboardcapacityinloosevolume Actualoperating timeinminutesperhour


Swellfactor Timerequiredper tripinminutes
 D D
Time required per trip in minutes or cycle time in minute =   G
F R
D = Haul distance in metres
F = Forward speed in meters/minute
R = Reverse speed in meters/minute
G = Gear shifting time in minutes (0.15 minute to 0.30 minutes)
Comparison Between Different Types of Excavating Equipment
Sl. Items of Comparison Power Back Hoe Drag line Clam Shell
No. Shovel
1. Excavation in hard soil Good Good Not Good Poor
or rock
2. Excavation in wet soil Poor Poor Moderately Moderately
or mud good good
3. Distance between Small Small Long Long
footing and digging
4. Loading Efficiency Very good Good Moderately Precise but
good slow
5. Footing required Close to Close to pit Fairly away Fairly away
work from pit from pit
6. Digging level Digs at or Digs below Digs below Digs at or
above footing level footing level below
footing footing level
level
7. Cycle time Short Slightly More than More than
more than the power the other
power shovel equipment.
shovel
 CHAPTER - 11
Loading and conveying
Equipment
 Introduction
Productive capacity of a hauling unit
Productive capacity per hour =

60
 [Hauler's payload per cycle in tonnes or cum]
cycle time in minute

Pay-load : Maximum recommended load for a hauling unit as prescribed by the manufacturer,
Cycle time = time required to complete one cycle of operation
= time required to complete one cycle of the operation
= Loading time + hauling time + dumping and turning time + return time +
spotting and waiting time.
Belt Conveyors
 Conveyor is an equipment which is capable of carrying material in a continuous
stream usually having as its special feature - same kind of an endless chain or belt
which by its motion constitutes continuous carrying arrangement of the conveyor.
 Conveying may involve a horizontal, inclined or vertical movement.

 Because of the continuous flow of materials at relatively high speeds, belt

conveyors have high capacities.
Advantages of belt-conveyor
(i) Continuous and uniform haulage
(ii) Low maintenance cost
(iii) Labour requirement
(iv) Ability to cross adverse terrain
(v) High reliability
(vi) Excellent safety.
Disadvantages of belt-conveyor
(vii) Very high initial cost
(ii) Requires skilled labour
(iii) Needs continuous supply of electric power.
 CHAPTER - 12

Hoisting Equipment's
 Introduction
 Hoisting is the operation of lifting a weight from one location and moving it to
another location which is at reasonable distance and then dumping it.
Types of Hoisting Equipments:
(i) Pulley
(ii) Chain Hoists
(iii) Jacks
(iv) Winch
(v) Cranes
Crane is the only hoisting equipment which is capable of providing the three dimensional
movement of the weight.
Cranes are broadly be divided into four classes:
(i) Stationary cranes, sometimes called Derrick cranes
(ii) Mobile cranes
(iii) Overhead or Gantry cranes
(iv) Tower cranes
(v) Traveller cranes
Sometimes, they are classified as:
(vi) Light duty
(ii) Medium duty
(iii) Heavy duty
(iv) Very heavy duty
They may be operated in various ways, and classified accordingly:
(i) electrically operated
(ii) diesel operated
(iii) Diesel-electric driven
Derrick Cranes
Mobile Cranes
Overhead or Gantry Cranes

Crab
Bridge
 These type of cranes ,due to its large service area, freedom from floor obstructions
and three-way motion are mostly used in factories, steel plans, storage yards, power
houses, work shops etc. etc.

 Such type of crane consists of two main parts: the bridge and the crab.

 Bridge consists of two main girders fixed at their ends to the end carriages which are
supported on tram wheels and are capable of moving on gantry rails.

 The crab consists of the hoisting gear mounted on a frame, the frame itself being
mounted on another set of wheels and capable of travelling across the main girders.
Tower Cranes
 This crane is usually employed in election of high
industrial and residential buildings reaching up to
several meters in height.
Traveller cranes
 Travelers of bridge cranes have their crabs moving on
girders which are supported on legs instead of an
overhead gantry track as used in gantry cranes.
 These legs are capable of moving on tracks laid on the
floor.
 CHAPTER - 13

Concreting Equipment
 Introduction
AG GR E GATE S
Manufacture of Concrete
F IN E COA RSE

CE M E N T S T O R IN G W ATE R

B A T C H IN G

M IX IN G

T R A N SP O R T IN G
FORM W ORK
E R E C T IO N
P L A C IN G

C O M P A C T IN G

F IN IS H IN G
FORM W ORK
RE M OVAL
C U R IN G
Generally following operation are performed during concreting.
(i) Storing
(a) Storing of cement
(b) Storing of aggregates
(c) Storing of water.
(ii) Batching
(a) Batching of cement
(b) Batching of aggregates
(c) Batching of water
(iii) Mixing
(a) Hand mixing
(b) Machine mixing.
(iv) Handling and Transporting
(v) Placing
(vi) Compacting
(vii) Finishing
(viii) Curing.
Storing of cement
 While storing of cement we shall make sure that it should not come in contact of
moisture.
(i) stored in storage sheds with raised damp proof floors.
(ii) stored about 60 cm from external wall and 15 cm above floor.
(iii) stacked up to a reasonable height for ease of handling and clodding (not more than
10 to 12 bags be stacked over one another).
(iv) stacked in godown/shed/shed/warehouse which is completely dry.
(v) placed close together to reduce circulation of air.
(vi) Early arrival should be consumed first applying the principle of FIRST IN, FIRST OUT.
Storing of aggregates
 The aggregate should be stored on hard and dry base or on platforms of planks, old
G.I. Sheet etc.
 Different size of aggregates should be piled separately by constructing different
compartments.
 Aggregates should be stored near the mixer.
 During stock piling successive consignments should not be dropped on the same
place to form a pyramid otherwise the coarser particles roll down the sides of the
pile and fine particles will concentrate at the centre.
Batching Materials
 Batching is the process of measurement of cement, fine aggregate (sand), coarse
aggregates (stone chips) and water for each batch of concrete mixing.
 It is essential that quantity of each material that goes into a batch must be exact so as
to produce concrete for the desired properties.
 Batching can be done in following ways.
(i) By volume
(ii) By weight
Batching of cement
 Generally cement is measured by counting the number of bags because each has a
fixed quantity (50 kg).
 When the size of the project is large enough to justify the installation of facilities to
handle bulk cement, it is usually stored in a suitable silo or fully enclosed bin
Batching of aggregates
 Batches of fine and coarse aggregates are based on one bag of cement or its multiples
unless bulk cement is used and weighed separately.
 This type of batching no correction is needed to allow for the bulking of sand, but an
allowance should be made for the weight of water contained in the wet aggregates.
 For smaller jobs, weigh batching may be done by
(i) Simple spring balances
(ii) Platform weighing machines
(iii) Automatic weighing machines.
Mixing of concrete
C O N C R E T E M IX IN G

H A N D M IX IN G M A C H I N E M I X I N G (M I X E R )

BATCH TY PE C O N T IN U O U S T Y P E

T IL T IN G T Y P E N O N -T I L T I N G T Y P E

Hand Mixing
 Hand mixing is adopted for small jobs where
the quantity of concrete is small.
Note: Mixing time should be approximately 2
minutes and should never exceed 3 min.
Machine mixing
 Machine used for production of concretes are
• Batching plant.
• Continuous mixers
• Tilting type.
• Non tilting type.
Batching plant

 Batchers are available in three categories i.e.

• Manual
• Semi-automatic
• Fully automatic
Concrete Mixers
Types of Concrete Mixers
 There are two main types of concrete mixers:
• Drum type
• Pan type
Drum Type Concrete Mixers
 Drum type mixer are of two types
• Tilting
• Non-tilting.
Tilting mixer
 The tilting mixer consists of a drum
rotating on roller bearing through a
ring gear around the periphery.
 Set of blades inside the drum gives
continuous agitation of the material
while mixing.
 Material for mixing is charged into
the drum by a loading hopper made
of steel plate. The hopper is
operated through the loading lever.
 Tilting mixers are useful for large construction works.
 Tilting mixers are easier to clean and can discharge the mix quickly and with
minimum segregation.
 It can be used for aggregate size more than 75 mm.
Non -tilting mixer
 Non-tilting mixer is equipped with a drum rotating about a horizontal axis.
 Blades are fixed inside the drum in such a way that it facilitates the discharge of
mixed concrete. These blades also assist in mixing up of the concrete.
 Non-tilting mixers are Suitable for small works.
 Non-tilting mixers cannot be used when aggregate size is more than 75 mm.
Compacting concrete
 Compacting of concrete is important to improve the characteristics of concrete.
Methods of Compaction
(a) Manual : By tamping rod.
(b) Mechanical : By Vibrators
(c) Special means : By Vibropressing
By Shock (jolting)
By Centrifugation
By Air jets
Vibrators
 Vibrators are used for compaction of concrete by means of vibration after
placement.
 Density of concrete produced due to vibration is much higher than that which can
be produced by hand tamping, and this concrete resists seepage better.
 Types of Concrete Vibrators
 Needle or internal Vibrators
 This is perhaps the most commonly used vibrator.
 It essentially consists of a steel tube (with one end closed and rounded) having an
eccentric vibrating element inside it. This steel tube called poker is connected to an
electric motor or a diesel engine through a flexible tube.
 Internal vibrators are comparatively efficient since all the work is done directly on
the concrete, unlike other types of vibrators.
 Internal vibration is generally best suited for ordinary construction provided the
section is large enough for the vibrator to be manipulated.
Form or External Vibrators
 These vibrators are clamped rigidly to the form work at the pre-determined points
so that the form and concrete are vibrated.
 The external vibrators are more often used for pre-casting of thin in-situ sections of
such shape and thickness as cannot be compacted by internal vibrators.
 They consume more power for a given compaction effect than internal vibrators.
Vibrating Tables or Platform Vibrators
 The vibrating table consists of a rigidly built steel platform mounted on flexible
springs and is driven by an electric motor.
 The vibrating tables are very efficient in compacting stiff and harsh concrete mixes
required for manufacture of precast elements in the factories and test specimens in
laboratories.
Surface Vibrators or Screeds

 These consist of vibrating-pan or screed vibrators which vibrate the concrete from
the surface - usually at the time the concrete is struck off or screeded.

 These are placed directly on the concrete mass.

 These are best suited for compaction of shallow elements and should not be used
when the depth of concrete to be vibrated is more than 150 mm.

 Very dry mixes can be most effectively compacted with such vibrators.
Finishing concrete
 Methods for finishing concrete
• Screeding
• Floating
• Trowelling.
Screeding
 It is process of striking off the excess concrete to bring the top surface up to proper
grade is called screeding.
Floating
 Floating consists in removing the irregularities on the surface of concrete which are
left screeding.
 It is done by a wooden float about 1.5 m long and 20 cm wide attached with a
handle
Trowelling
 It is final operation of finishing. It should be done after all excess water has
evaporated.
 Trowelling with steel float in conical shape gives a very smooth finish.

H a n d le

1 .5 m S m o oth s u r fa ce
Curing of concrete
 Curing is defined as the process of maintaining humidity and moisture at favourable
temperature of freshly placed concrete during some definite period following
placing, casting and finishing to attain full hydration of the cement.
 Strength attainment of concrete starts with the reaction of cement and water.
 Hydration of cement and this reaction takes place over a considerable length of time
in the presence of moisture.
 Therefore concrete is kept under favorable temperature between 5°c to 28°c.
 Curing helps in prevention of loss of moisture from concrete and helps in attaining
the maximum strength.
Objective of Curing

 It increases durability and impermeability of concrete.

 It reduces shrinkage of concrete.

 It improves wear resisting and weather resisting qualities.

Methods of curing

 Shading concrete work.

 Covering concrete surface with wet hessian or gunny bags.

 Sprinkling water on concrete surface.

 Ponding method : It is best method and generally used in practice.

 Steam curing recommended for precast concrete members.

 Curing period : As per IS : 456–1978, concrete members shall be kept under curing
for a minimum period of 7 days.

 Curing temperature : 5°C to 28° C.

Note: Lower temperature reduces the rate of setting and higher temperature reduces
the ultimate strength.
 CHAPTER - 14

Compacting Equipment
 Introduction
 Compaction is the method of artificially densifying the soil by pressing soil particles
together into close contact, resulting in the expulsion of air and/or water from the
soil mass.
 Compaction is done to increase the strength of an earth fill or an embankment.
 Compactors are designed to use one or a combination of the following types of
compactive efforts:
 Kneading action –Manipulation or rearranging
 Static weight – Pressure application
 Impact – Sharp blow
 Vibration– Shaking
Types of Rollers
 Sheep’s Foot Rollers
 Sheep’s foot rollers are suitable for compacting fine grained materials such as clays
and mixtures of sand and clay.

 These cannot compact granular soils such as sand and gravel.

 Depth of a layer of soil to be compacted is limited to approximately the length of the

feet.

 They are used for manipulation and compaction of plastic clays

 Sheep foot rollers are slow, have a very high rolling resistance and therefore cost per
unit volume compacted is high.
Smooth-wheel Rollers
 These rollers are effective in compacting
granular soils, such as sand, gravel, and
crushed stone
 When compacting cohesive soils, these
rollers tend to form a crust over the
surface, which may prevent adequate
compaction in the lower portion of a lift.

 This type of roller is, therefore, limited in performance such as, to compaction of
fairly thin layers, that is, 10 to 30 cm, depending on the size of the equipment.
 The steel drums of the rolls may be ballasted with water or sand to increase the
weights.
Pneumatic- tyred Rollers

 Pneumatic- tyred Rollers are surface rollers, which

apply the principle of kneading action to effect
compaction below the surface.

 These rollers are used for rolling sub grades, airfield

and bases of earth fill dams.

Vibrating Compactors

 Vibratory compactors enhance the performance of static weight rollers by adding

dynamic forces, usually achieved by a rotating eccentrically weighed shaft mounted
inside the roller.
Types of Vibrating compactors are :
 Vibrating sheep’s foot rollers,
 Vibrating steel-drum rollers,
 Vibrating pneumatic- tyred rollers,
 Vibrating plates or shoes.
Manually Operated Vibratory Plate Compactors
Manually Operated Vibratory Tamping Compactors
Manually Operated Rammer Compactors
Output of Compactors
The output of compacting rollers can be estimated as below:

S hl n pt
Q
N
Q = Quantity of compacted earth, m3
S = Speed of roller, m/min
h = Time of rolling, min
Width of overlap
l = Length of drum, m Overlap 
[(No of drums)  (width of each drums)]
n = Number of drums
p = Percentage fraction of overlap
t = Layer thickness, m
N = Number of passes required.
 Objective Questions

1. The maximum rim pull in the first gear of a tractor while towing a load is 6300 kg.
The tractor weighs 12 tonnes and is operating along a 2 per cent upgrade and the
rolling resistance is 45 kg/ tonne. Pull available for towing the load is

(a) 3425 kg (b) 5515 kg

(c) 4350 kg (d) 2975 kg

2. Consider the following statements:
A concrete mixer is specified by the
1. volume of the mixing drum
2. horse power of the prime mover
3. volume of mixed concrete discharged
4. mixer drum speed
5. feeding arrangement
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 5(b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 3 and 5 (d) 2 and 4
3. Reinforced concrete door and window frames can be compacted using
1. needle vibrator
2. plate vibrator
3. form vibrator
4. tamping
The correct sequence of these equipment in order of preference (form the best to
the worst) is
(a) 2, 3, 4, 1 (b) 3, 2, 1, 4
(c) 2, 3, 1, 4 (d) 3, 2, 4, 1
4. Which one of the following is NOT an excavating and moving type of equipment?
(a) Bulldozer (b) Clamshell
(c) Scraper (d) Dump truck
5. The most suitable type of equipment for compacting of cohesive soils is
(a) smooth-wheeled rollers (b) vibratory rollers
(c) sheep foot rollers (d) tampers
6. For excavating utility trenches with precise control of depth, the excavation
equipment used is
(a) hoe (b) shovel
(c) dragline (d) none of these
7. The basic action involved in sheep foot rolling is
(a) kneading (b) pressing
(c) tamping (d) vibration
8. Match List-I (Nature of work) with List-II (Machine required) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
A. Excavation and moving 1. Derrick
B. Pure excavation 2. Dump  truck
C. Pure transportation3. Power shovel
D. Pure hoisting 4. Drag line
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 1 3 2 4
(b) 3 4 2 1
(c) 4 3 2 1
(d) 4 3 1 2
9. Match List-I (Type of mixers) with List-II (Characteristics) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
Codes :
List-I
A B C D
A. Tilting, drum type concrete mixers
(a) 2 3 4
B. Pan type concrete mixers 1
C. Portable tilting drum type concrete mixers (b) 4 1 2 3
D. Portable non-tilting drum type concrete mixers (c) 2 1 4
List-II 3
1. Are very efficient especially with stiff mixes and the drum
(d) 4rotates
3 about
2 1a
vertical axis
2. Are meant for small, scattered jobs using small-sized aggregates
3. Are fed from one side of the drum while the mixed concrete is discharged from
the other end and the drum rotates about a horizontal axis
4. Are best suited for large sized aggregates as in mass concrete
10. Which of the following are the disadvantages of non-tilting type concrete mixers?
1. They are not favoured when large sized aggregates are used.
2. Mixing of the concrete occurs through both rolling and pulling from buckets.
3. Content of fines is increased.
4. They are not easy to clean.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(a) 1, 2 and 3(b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 4(d) 2, 3 and 4
11. The working range of a crane is limited horizontally for maximum lift only by
(a) boom length (b) length of hoist cable
(c) length of jib (d) counter weight
12. Which one of the following types of crane is used for high rise buildings?
(a) Traveller crane(b) Tower crane
(c) Overhead gantry crane (d) Derrick crane
13. Match List-I (Type of equipment) with List-II (Purpose) and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
A. Agitating Truck 1. Quarrying
B. Hoe 2. Compacting
C. Derrick Pole 3. Hoisting
D. Sheep Foot roller 4. Transporting
Codes:
A B C D
(a) 4 3 1 2
(b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 4 1 3 2
(d) 2 3 1 4
14. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the lists:
List-I
A. To dig trenches, footings or basement where the precise control of depth is
required
B. To handle loose materials such as sand, gravel, coal, etc.
C. To excavate all classes of earth except the rock and load it into the trucks
D. To excavate the earth from a canal and to be deposited on nearby banks
List-II Codes:
1. Clam shells A B C D
2. Power shovel (a) 3 5 2
3. Back hoe 1
4. Scraper (b) 2 1 4
5. Drag line 5
(c) 3 1 2 5
(d) 2 5 4 1
15. When power shovels are operated under different site conditions (in terms of
material handled), what is the correct sequence in the increasing order of the
output for the following materials?
1. Well-blasted rock
2. Hard and tough clay
3. Poorly blasted rock
4. Moist loam or sand
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(a) 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 (b) 1 – 4 – 3 – 2
(c) 4 – 2– 3 – 1 (d) 4 – 3 – 1 – 2
16. Which one of the following shovel excavators is considered most efficient in loading
carriers?
(a) Dipper shovel (b) Dragline
(c) Backhoe (d) Clamshell
17. The strain on the boom of a hoist is minimum when it is in the
(a) vertical position (b) horizontal position
(c) inclined position general(d) 45° inclined position
18. Consider the following parameters:
1. The stability of the footing.
2. The strength of the boom.
3. The counterweight.
4. Size of aggregates.
Which of the above parameters governs the load capacity of a crane?
(a) 1 only (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 2, 3 and 4
19. Assertion (A) : The hoe is not very advantageous in digging trenches and basements.
Reason (R) : In a hoe, the digging action results from the drag of the bucket.
Ans. (d)
20. Assertion (A) : Crawler mounted power shovels have low speeds.
Reason (R) : Power shovels are usable with all classes of earth and rocks.
Ans. (b)
21. Assertion (A) : Crane and bucket arrangement is always and at all places preferable
over tower and buckets arrangements for placement of concrete.
Reason (R) : With cranes, haul distances for buckets can be reduced.
Ans. (d)
22. Assertion (A) : In the hydraulically-controlled bulldozers, the blade can be forced
into the ground more accurately than in the cable-controlled bulldozers.
Reason (R) : High friction on the blade is produced in addition to its weight in the
hydraulically-controlled bulldozers.
Ans. (b)
23 Assertion (A) : Rubber tyred equipment pull better on smooth, hard surfaces while
crawlers work better on firm earth.
Reason (R) : Bulldozers mounted on wheels are employed on earth construction for
better performance.
Ans. (d)
24. Assertion (A): A drag line is a suitable equipment for excavating or digging earth and
depositing it on nearby bank.
Reason (R): In drag-line, there is no need of a separate hauling unit.
Ans. (a)
25. Assertion (A): The crawler-mounted bulldozers are suitable on soft footing
compared to wheel-mounted type.
Reason (R): The rubber tyres in the wheel may get damaged very easily.
Ans. (c)
26. Assertion (A): In the Guy-Derrick cranes, the job can rotate through 360° and erect
the objects within its reach.
Reason (R): In a Guy-Derrick crane, there is no back leg to slip.
Ans. (a)