CHAPTER – 1

Fundamental Surveying
 Introduction
Surveying : Its defined as art of measuring relative positions of various points above on or
below the surface of earth and presenting these graphically or numerically.
Objectives of Surveying :
 To measure relative position of points
 To layout mark out the position of proposed structure on the ground
 To measure area, volume and other related activities
Method of presentation of measurements
 1. Numerically 2. Graphically
 Plan is large scale
 Maps is small scale
 Vertical distance can be presented with the help of spot level and contours
Basic definition
 Shape of earth:
 Its an oblate spheroid
 Polar axis is 43.5 km shorter than equatorial axis elliptical shape
 Ellipsoid :
 Actually equatorial section is slightly elliptical in shape
 Ovaloid
 Southern hemisphere is slightly larger than northern hemisphere.
 A new name has been given i.e. Geoid
 But for all measurement purpose in surveying the irregularities of earth surface are
considered to be absent and the resultant surface is considered to be a sphere.
Level surface:
 A level surface is a curved surface which is parallel level surface
to the spherical surface of earth and have every
point on it is equidistant from the centre of earth.
 Every element of level surface is perpendicular to
the plumb line at that point

Level Line :
 A line lying on the level surface
Horizontal plane
Horizontal plane :
 A horizontal plane at a point is a tangential plane to the Plump line
earth’s surface and is perpendicular to the plumb line.
Great circle :
 An imaginary circle passing through centre of earth is called as
great circle.
 Note : The great circle divides the sphere into 2 equal parts. eg.
All meridians and the equator. Spherical triangle

 In a spherical triangle is that triangle which is formed on the

surface of earth by intersection of 3 arcs of a great circle.
 The arch enclosing the spherical triangle are called as its Side
sides and the angles in which these arcs intersect are called
spherical angle
 Its defined as the angle between the tangents to the great A1 Spherical angle
circles at the point of intersection. Az
A
 Length of sides of a spherical triangle is defined as
A
the angle subtended by that side at the centre of the
earth
L
AB = AOB
O E
 Properties of Spherical a spherical triangle: B
 Each side of a spherical D Ð 180° Centre of
 Each angle of spherical D Ð 180° earth
 Sum of 3 sides must be between 0 ® 360°
 Sum of 3 angles must be between 180° – 540° (p – 3 p)
 Note : The amount by which some of the angles of a spherical triangle exceeds 180° is
called as spherical excess
 Surface area of a spherical triangle must be less than 2pR2 where R ® radius of earth
 Greater angle is opposite to greater side and vice versa
 Angles at the base of isosceles triangle will be equals
 Classification of surveying
(a) Plane surveying (b) Geodetic surveying
 Above classification is based on the principle that whether the curvature of earth is
considered or its assumed to be flat
 As the shape of earth is considered to be spherical the measured distance on the
earth’s surface are actually curved.
 Its observed that it these distances are shall in comparison to radius of earth these
there is no significant difference between the curved distance and corresponding
straight line distance
18.5 km
Note : Hence we can imagine why plane surveying is
considered a chord corresponding to an arc length of
18.5 km is only 1.52 cm short in length. Chord
A B
 Plane and Geodetic Surveying it will be 1.52 cm less

 Geodetic survey is dove for large area in which effect of curvature of earth because
significant.
 Its basically used to establish control points which further sever as a reference point
for local surveys
 In plane surveying we reflect the effect of curvature and plotted measurements are
actually Projected on a horizontal plane.
 Geodetic surveys are done by SOI (survey of India)
 For survey area upto 195.5 km2 the discrepancy between plane and geodetic
surveying is insignificant.
Note : For area = 195.5 km2, spherical excess is 1 second.
 For geodetic surveying we require spherical trigonometry whereas for plane surveying
we require plane trigonometry
 Classification based on the purpose of survey
 Topographical survey
 These surveys are used the obtain maps which show details of natural and man made
features on the earths surface including elevation.
 Scale : 1 : 25000 to 1 : 10,00,000
 Engineering surveys : These surveys are used for engineering Works
 eg. Highways, sewers bridge etc.
 Scale : 1 : 50 – 1 : 200 { building works}
1 : 500 – 1 : 2500 { bridges and other civil works}
1 : 1250 – 1 : 50,000 { highways}
 Cadastral Survey
 These surveys are used for representing property boundaries
 Scale : 1 : 100 – 1 : 5000
 Hydro graphic survey
 These surface are done or are near water bodies, lakes, rivers, harbours etc.
 Astronomical survey
 These surveys are used to determine latitude, longitude and local time etc. These
surveys also help in determination of absolute location of a point on the earth’s
surface.
 Geological survey
 Its used to obtain information about different strata of earth’s surface
Classification based an instrument
 Chain surveying : It’s the simplest types of surveying in which only linear
measurements are taken with chain or tape.
Note : angular measurements are not taken
 Compass surveying : In compass surveying a magnetic compass is used to measure
horizontal angles and linear measurements are done with the help of chain / tape
 Leveling : A some instrument is used to plot/determine relative elevations of various
points.
 Plane table survey : In this a plan / map is prepared by determining the direction of
various points and taking the linear measurements with the help of chain / tape
 Theodolite survey : In theodolite survey, horizontal and vertical angles are measured
with the help of a theodolite and linear measurement are some with the help of
chain/tape
Tachometric survey :
 In this type of surveying horizontal, vertical angle, and horizontal vertical distances are
measured with a special kind of instruments called as tacheometric.
Photogrammetric survey :
 In photogrammetric surveying the survey is carried out by taking photos with the help
of cover. Its used for large scale mapping and obtaining details of areas which are
difficult to access.
Principles of Survey :
 Work from whole to part : Main objective of working hour whole to part is to localize
the error and prevent their accumulation if we work from part to whole error can
accumulate and expand to a greater extent.
Locate a point at least by 2 measurement

q q1 q2

 Scale : It’s the ratio of length of a line on plan / map to the length of corresponding
line on the ground.
Eng. scale 1 cm = 100 m
 Numerical scale
RF (representative fraction) = 1 : 10000
Graphical scale :

on a map

Large scale / small scale :

Scale A Scale B
1:1m 1 cm = 10 m
1 : 100 1 : 1000
Graphical scale :
 Graphical scale is a line drawn on a plan or a map and working the ground distance
directly an it. Graphical scale has advantage over engineering scale that distance on
map can be determined by actual scaling clean where map has shrunk
 In case of shrinking of map the graphical scale also change with map and the ratio is
unaffected

y  S.R y  1
 We use the shrunk scale =   original scale
1000 x  x  1000

Shrunk scale Shrunk RF

 (y/x) ® Shrinkage factor / shrinkage ratio S.R(Shrinkage ratio)  
Original scale OriginalRF
Error due to wrong measuring scale :
(i) Correct length :
RF of wrong scale
 measuredlength
RF of correct scale
Use of Vernier In Scale :
 Vernier is a device used for measuring readings which are practical part of the smallest
division on main scale
 Actual reading is given by reading corresponding to main scale before index mark + n
(least count)
 Where n is no graduations on Vernier scale
 Lc = 1 division of main scale – 1 division of Vernier scale
Note : Divisions on Vernier are made either slightly shorter larger than that of main
scale
 Direct Vernier : In Direct Vernier n division of Vernier scale = (n – 1) divisions of main
scale

Note : In direct Vernier divisions are slightly shorter than MSD

LC= 1 MSD (S)- 1 VSD (V)

 We know nV = (n – 1)S (n  1)S

 n 1  nn1 S
V S LC  S   S  
 n  n  n  n
 Least count of Vernier is value of smallest division on main scale divided by total no. of
division on VS
 Retrograde vernier : In Retrograde vernier (n + 1) divisions on ms = n divisions on
Vernier scale.
 In case of retrograde vernier readings of the vernier scale increases in the opposite
directions of main scale whereas in direct vernier both increase in same direction.
 In Retrograde vernier, vernier divisions are slightly longer than MSD
Þ nv = n + 1(S)
 n  1 S  S  S  n  1  n   S
  
 n  n  n
 LC = V – S Þ
Special types of vernier :
 Double vernier : Graduation on main scale increases in 1 direction only if we have a
single vernier, whereas when Main Scale is numbered in both direction a double
vernier is used
 Example: theodolite
 Double vernier consists of 2 direct verniers extending in path direction with the index
mark in the centre.
Double folded vernier :
 It’s a special type of double vernier whose total length is half of the combined length
of corresponding double vernier
 A double folded vernier is used where is required to shorten the length and to
economize the space when the length of corresponding double vernier too large eg.:
compass
 In double folded vernier, the vernier is read from the index mark towards either of the
extreme division and then from other extreme division towards the centre in the same
direction.
Extended vernier :
 When the division of main scale are very close and it because difference to determine
the exact graduation where coincidence occurs if the vernier of normal length is used.
 In this case all extended vernier is used.
 Hence extended vernier is very useful when available lengths of vernier scale is small
but is required to have small least count without making the vernier division too close
 In extended vernier n division of vernier scale are equal in length to (2n – 1) division of
main scale.
 Mv = (2n – 1)S
LC = 2S – V

(2n  1) eg. : used in A buy level

L.C  2S  S
n

 2n  2n  1  S
L.C  S  n
 n 
 Precision and accuracy
 Precision : Degree of fineness and care with which any physical measurement is taken
 Accuracy : Degree of perfection
 A value is considered to be accurate when its close to true value
 Precise value represents a set of observations that are closely grouped and have small
deviation from true value.

×××× ××
× ×× × ××
×

Precise Accurate Accurate and precise

Mistake and error
 Mistake: These are caused due to misunderstanding, carelessness or poor judgment.
 These can be corrected of discovered
 Error: E = MV – TV
 This does not arise due to mistakes its due to physical condition of the instrument like
limitation of human eye.
 C = TV – MV
 Hence, Error = – Correction
Error are classified as:
Systematic error
Accumulative error
They follow definite maths or physical law
and hence correction can always be
determined and applied
eg : expansion of steel tapes these are
cumulative in nature
Random error
Accidental error (Compensating error)
Random errors are those discrepancies
remaining after the mistakes and
systematic error are removed.
Random errors are not of much significant
for ordinary surveys but they are quit
important for precise and control surveys
 CHAPTER – 2
Linear Measurements
 Introductions
Linear measurement :
 Main purpose of surveying is to plot a plan/map of an area as the map is plotted on a
horizontal plane, the distance shown are horizontal projections on this plane.
 In surveying the distance between two points is the horizontal distance
 Where the slope distances are measured in the field. These are always reduced
equivalent horizontal distance for the preparation of maps
Methods of linear horizontal measurements
Direct method
Optical method (Tachometry)
EDMI’s (Electronic distance measuring instruments)
Note : EDM are classified in 3 ways based on carrier waves

(i) Light wave (ii) Micro wave (iii) Infrared wave

Geodimeter or Mekometer Distomat, Tellurometer Total station
Chain surveying :
Its a branch of surveying in which distances are measured with the help of chain or tape
Process of doing so is called chaining.
Its used for small area
Follower Leader
0m 30 m
A B direction of movement

Leader puts the arrow and follower collects it.

The number of arrows with the follower denotes the number of chain lengths measured.
Procedure in chain surveying :
In chain surveying various points are located by measuring with the help of chain / tape

generally
called effect generally
called tie
q

Note : Offset are lateral distance measured from the survey line to the station whose
detail is to be plotted
(i) Perpendicular offset (simply offset)
(ii) Oblique offset (Tie)
 But where the area is large, arrow introduced due to larger offset will be more
 To overcome this difficulty, large area is first of all converted into a network of
triangles and there details are noted w.r.t. sides of these triangles using ties and
offset.
 Basic definition :
 Main station : Its a point where 2 sides of triangle met and these form boundary of a
survey area.
 Main survey lines: These are the lines setting main survey stations
 Tie station or subsidiary station : Tie stations are station on the line joining main
station.
 Tie line / auxillary line : Tie line is a line joining tie stations these are helpful in
locating inner detail of the area to be surveyed
 Base line : Base line is the largest main survey line passing through the centre of the
area to be surveyed.
 Check line / Proof line : Check line is trained to check the accuracy of field work, its
not used for plotting of any work.
 Measured length of check line should be equal to length of check line plotted on the
plan
 Chainage : chainage is the distance measured along the direction of progress of
survey
 It’s a distance of well defined point from the starting point.
 The term chain age is used in linear projects
Well conditioned :
 In chain surveying attempt should be made to form a triangle such that intersection
of lines should be clear for plotting purpose.
 Hence for obtaining distinct intersection, angle between 2 lines should be between
300 and 120°
 Best possible Well conditioned triangle is an equilateral triangle.
 Equipments used in chain surveying :
 Surveying chain :
 Types of surveying chains :
 Revenue chain : 33 feet long (16 link)
 Gunter’s chain : 66 feet long (100 link)
 Engineering Chain : 100 feet long (100 link)
 Metric chain
(i) 30 m chain (150 link)
(ii) 20 m chain (100 link)
Note : 1 mile = 1.6093 km = 80 Gunter’s chain
1 acre = 4046.856 m2 = 10 × (Gunter’s chain)2
Tapes :
(i) Cloths / liven tape: Its made up of closely woven linen/ synthetic material and
varnished to resist the moisture.
(ii) Metallic tape: Its made up of linen and brass and copper wire woven into it and
varnished. This tape gives better result in comparison to cloth/linen tape since
stretching is reduced.
(iii) Steel tape: Its made up of stainless steel to avoid rusting, the tape should be wipped
with a dry cloth and then again with an oily cloth after use.
(iv) Invar tape : Its made up of steel and nickel alloy
Steel – 64%
Nickel – 36%
 These tapes are highly accurate and hence have a very low thermal coefficient of
expansion.
 These tapes require much attention in handling as these are soft and deform easily.
Accessories for chaining
 Pegs : These are used to mark definite points on the ground permanently or semi-
permanently.
 Arrow : Its used by leader to work the end of a chain length, which is later collected
by the follower.
 Ranging Rod : Its used to locate intermediate point along a survey line and this
process is called ranging
 Offset rod : Ranging rod with slats made at right angles is called offset rod and it helps
in taking offsets
 Grass staff open CS : Its used for setting out right angles an any point on chain line.
 French cross staff :
 Its used to measure 45°, 90° and 135° with respect to
the chain line
Index mirror
 Optical square : Its used to set out right angles. It uses (which is fally pointed)

the principle of double reflection i.e. reflected ray

45°
becomes perpendicular to the incident ray after double
Rod 1
reflection from 2 mirrors inclined at 45° Horizontal mirror
with top half silvered
Rod 2
 Prism square : It has similar arrangement as compared to optical square with mirror
reflected by prism.
 Simple clinometer : Its used to measure ground slope

40 100
0
10 20 30
 Ranging :
 The process of locating intermediate points an a straight line is called as ranging.
 Direct and Indirect ranging :
Ranging

Direct Indirect

R.A (Random line

(Repeater alignment) method)

 Direct ranging
 Where the intermediate points are established by direct observation from end
stations
Indirect ranging :
Repeated alignment/ Reciprocal ranging :
Random line method :
R a n d om L in e
D´ B´ AB AB BB
C´  
AC AC CC
A

C AB  (AB)2  (BB)2
D
B
Linear measurement with chain :
 An smooth level ground : if distance to be measured is larger than 1 chain length
then by establishing intermediate points in line with end station i.e. by Ranging we
can determine the distance.
 On sloping ground : The horizontal distance can be measured by
(a) Stepping. (b) Measuring along the slope.
 If the ground slope is regular / uniform these measuring along the slope is possible,
but if variable slope is observed, this method of stepping is used.
 During the process of stepping we follow.
 Stepping down the hill.
Errors in chaining are as follows :
Systematic error
Systematic error / cumulative error)
They occur in some direction and tend to accumulate, thereby, they significantly increase
or decrease the measurement.
They are directly proportional to length of line.
Compensating errors : They are liable to occur in both direction and tend to accumulate.
They cannot be corrected as the nature of correction is not known.
Compensating error  (LL– length of line)
Error and correction :
Error = Measured Value – True Value
Correction = True Value – Measured value
Error = – correction
 Correction

Chain Tape

(i) Correction of standardization (i) Correction for standardization

(ii) Correction for slope
(ii) Correction for slope
(iii) Correction for pull
(iv) Correction for sag
(v) Correction for Temperature
(vi) Correction for Misalignment
(vii) Correction for Mean Sea Level
Correction for standardization (Ca):
If actual length not equal to nominal length of a chain or tape i.e.
ML ¹ CL

Then correction for standardization is to be applied to the measured distance.

If actual length is shorter nominal length, distance measure will be > correct length
\ error is (+we) and correction is (– ve)
If chain is shorter this correct is subtractive.
Error / chain length : l – l’
Nominal length of chain= l
Actual length of chain = l’

Total error in measured distance L’

L
 (l – l) 
l

Total correction in measure distance L’

L'
 (l'– l)
l
Correct distance = Measure distance + correction

(l' l) l
CD  L' L  L 
l l
Measured distance
Correct distance  actuallength 
Nominallength oft ape

2
 Actuallength 
Correct area     Areameasured
 Nominallength 
3
 Actuallength 
Correct value     measured value
 Nominallength 
Correction for slope = (Cg)
Error for slope is always (+ve)
Correction for slope is always (–ve)
As we know, distance measured along the slope will always be greater than horizontal
distance
\ Slope correction is always (– ve)
Case I : If angle of slope (q) is measured
Cg = – L(1 – cos q)
Case II : If difference of elevation is measured:
h2
Cg  
2L
Note : slope correction is generally neglected if slope angle £ 30°
 Correction for pull : if the pull applied at the end of the tape during the
measurement in the field is different from the standard tension at which the tape
was calibrated correction for pull is required.

 If pull applied is > standard pull, actual length of tape will be > nominal length
 Hence correction is (+ve)
(P – P0 )  L
Cp 
A
P = pull applied during the measurement.
P0 = standard pull.
L = Nominal / measured length.
E = young’s Modulus.
A = Area.
Correction for temperature :
 Its required when, tape temperature is difference from the temperature at which it
was standardized

Standardization
temperature
Ct =a [Tm - T0 ]L
mean temperature
of Tape Length of Tape
Correction for sag Þ (Cs)
• When the tape is supported between the two ends it takes the shape of catenary
P l¢ P¢
• If tape is standardized on flat and used in catenary :
• Correction will be (–ve)
l
• Because the horizontal chord length is always shorter than curved length
• You determination of correction of sag the curve is assumed to be parabola instead
of actual shape of catenary.
W2l
Cs 
24 P2
• l= length of tape between bays
• P= pull applied at the end
• W=total weight of the tape
 If total length of the tape is suspended in n bays of equal length,
then,
W2l
Cs 
24 n2P2

Nominal tension = (Pn)

It’s the theoretical pull at which the pull correction is numerically = sag
correction

(Pn  P0 )L W2l

AE 24 Pn2
Correction for msL:

hL
Ch 
R
Correction for misalignment:

Cm   L21  h2  L22  h2  [L1  L2 ] 

Combined correction: Combined correction due to two or more causes can be

found out by algebraically adding various corrections.
Find work in chain surveying :
 Reconnaissance survey: It the preliminary inspection of the all a to be surveyed to
obtain same idea of the terrain and to identify principle factures of the ground.
 It enables the surveyor to decide the best possible arrangement of the triangles.
 Making of station: After completion of reconnaissance survey best suitable
positions of main survey stations are marked on the ground such that they can be
easily identified after wards if required.
 Running of serve lines: They are run to measure distance between main stations
and to locate adjacent details by taking offsets.
 Taking offset: Details of various points are obtained with the help of offset and tie.
 Max length of offset depends upon:
1) scale of plotting
2) Nature of ground
3) Accuracy desired.
Degree of accuracy of offsets :
4) Scale of plotting
5) Length of offset
6) Degree of importance of detail for which offset is taken
Obstacles in chaining :
Case I : Chaining around the obstacle is possible building, pond, small bend in the river
 E D
Case II : Chaining around the obstacle is not possible eg. R iver
Long river (Similarity of triangles property is used).
C

Recording of measurement :
A B
 Double line survey book is used to record, the chain
survey and booking starts from the bottom.

Cross staff survey

 It’s a special type of chain survey which is used to locate boundary of the field for
calculating the area.
 During this survey area is plotted on suitable scale.
 Objective Questions
1. Offsets are
(a) lateral measurements made with respect to main survey lines
(b) perpendiculars erected from chain lines
(c) taken to avoid unnecessary walking between stations
(d) measurements which are not made at right angles to the chain line
2. Match List-I (Corrections) with List-II (Name) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
 h
L  1  
A. 1. Sag
R  correction
2
l W Codes:
B.  2.  Pull
 correction A B C
24  P 
D
(a) 4 1 3
C. ± a(Tf – Ts)L 3. Temperature correction 2
(P  P ) L (b) 1 4 3
 f s 2
D. AE Mean sea level correction
4.
(c) 4 1 2
3
(d) 1 4 2
3
3. Consider the following:
1. Line ranger 2. Reciprocal ranging
3. Random line method 4. Optical square
Which of these are the correct methods of ranging employed to solve the problem
of vision obstructed but with chaining free?
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 4 only (d) 3 and 4 only
4. The double-line field book is most commonly used for recording
(a) precise work (b) ordinary chain survey work
(c) large-scale plotting work(d) small-scale plotting work
5. In chain surveying, field work is limited to
(a) linear measurements only
(b) angular measurements only
(c) both linear and angular measurements
(d) none of the above
6. The accuracy of measurement in chain surveying, does not depend upon
(a) length of the offset
(b) scale of the plotting
(c) importance of the features
(d) general layout of the chain lines
7. Chainage in chain survey means
(a) the distance between end stations
(b) the perpendicular distance of the object from the chain line
(c) the distance of the object along the chain line from the zero end of the chain
(d) any distance measured by chain in field
8. Check lines (proof lines) in chain surveying are essentially required
(a) to plot the chain line
(b) to plot the offsets
(c) to indicate the correctness of the survey work
(d) to increase the efficiency of the surveyor
9. Invar tape is made of an alloy of
(a) copper and steel (b) brass and nickel
(c) brass and steel (d) steel and nickel
10. Which of the following is the most precise instrument for measuring horizontal
distances.
(a) Chain (b) Tape
(c) Tacheometer (d) Tellurometer a type of EDM
 CHAPTER – 3
Compass Surveying
 Introductions
 It’s a branch of surveying in which direction of survey line are found out B
with a compass and length of these lines are caused with a chain / tape.
A C
 Compass are generally used to rule a traverse in the field.
 In surveying traverse is a frame work, consisting of a series of straight E D
lines connected together to form an open / closed polygon.
 Points such as A and B define end points of a traverse line which are
called as traverse stations or traverse points
 Depending on the instruments used for the measurement of angles :
(i) Compass traverse
(ii) Stadia traverse
(iii) Plane table traverse
(iv) Theodolite traverse
Difference between chain surveying and traverse surveying :

Chain Surveying Traverse survey

Only linear measurements are taken
Framework consist of triangles
Check lines are required
Both angular and linear measurements are
taken
Framework consists series of connected
lines forming open or closed polygon
Check lines are not required

Used when area is small and accuracy When are is increase and accuracy
required is low required is increasing
 Types of Traverse

Closed Open
 A closed traverse starts from a point of known location and closes either on the same
station or another station whose location is already known.
 Open traverse : It’s a traverse which starts from a point of known location and closes
on a station whose location is not known.
unknown location
known location
Compass traverse :
 In this, a magnetic compass is used to determine direction of survey lines and
horizontal angle of the traverse.
 Sides of traverse are measured like chain or tape.
 Size of compass is determine by direction of graduated ring.
 Measurement of angles :
 Direction chain of a survey lines can be defined in 2 ways
1. Relative to each other
2. Relative to some fixed reference direction
 Fixed line of reference is called as meridian
 Types of meridian :
(i) True meridian
(ii) Magnetic meridian
(iii) Grid meridian
(iv) Arbitrary meridian
 True meridian at a point on the earth’s surface is a line joining North and South pole of
earth’s surface through that point.
 True meridian represents, the true North and true south direction at a place.
 True meridian at a place is determined by taking astronomical observation of sun and
stars.
 True meridian at point does not change with time.
Magnetic meridian :
 Magnetic meridian at a point is a direction indicated by a freely suspended magnetic
needle. Provided that it should not be affected by the magnetic force other than that
of earth.
 Magnetic meridian at a place is not fixed it changed with time.
Grid meridian :
 For survey of a country the true meridian passing through the central area is taken as
a reference meridian for the whole country and such a reference meridian is known as
Grid meridian e.g.: 82.5° E, Naini (Allahabad)
 Meridian at all other places in the country are assumed parallel to the grid meridian.
 Arbitrary meridian :
 Arbitrary meridian is a meridian which is taken in any arbitrary direction.
 Generally its taken in direction from a transverse station to a well defined point i.e.
church spire or top of a chimney.
 Sometimes it’s the direction of first traverse line
Bearing :
 It’s the horizontal angle between the fixed reference time and traverse line / survey
line.
Types of bearing :
(i) True bearing (ii) Grid bearing
(iii) Magnetic bearing (iv) Arbitrary bearing
 At a point true bearing of a line does not change with the passage of time
 Magnetic baring of line changes with the passage of time as magnetic meridian
changes with time.
Note : For all important surveys true bearing is preferred.
Designation of bearing :
 Whole circle bearing (WCB): It’s the horizontal angle between the line and north end
of reference meridian is clockwise direction.
 The value of WCB varies from (0 – 360°)

N
WCB

W E

S
Quadrantal bearing : (QB)
 Quadrantal bearing of a line is the acute angle which the line makes with the meridian
 Thus Quadrantal bearing is measured from the North point and south point N

 Value of Quadrantal bearing rectangle from 0° ® 90°

 In QB system angles are measured in CW as well as ACW direction
 QB is measured with a surveyor’s compass
OA Þ N q E N S
g q
OB Þ S a E D A
OC Þ S b W
OD Þ N g W

C b a B
Fore bearing / back bearing :
Fore bearing :
It’s the bearing of a line is the directions of progress of survey.
Back bearing:
It’s the bearing of a line opposite to direction of progress of survey

Relation between FB and BB :

Back bearing = FB + 180°
When our FB is < 180°
BB = FB ± 180°
When FB > 180°
BB = FB – 180°
Included angle : When two lines meet at a point, the angle between them is called
included angle
• It can be interior or exterior angle
Definition : In surveying Included angle is the angle measured in
(180CW
– q) direction from
preceding line to the next line of the traverse. B b 180 – q + b
Note : Clockwise traverse : Exterior included angle
Anticlockwise traverse : Interior included angle q

Calculation of included angle from bearing : A

C
< Included = FB of Next line – BB of previous line
Note : If a (– ve) value is obtained then add 360° to get the actual included angle
Correction of bearing from included Angle:
Included angle = FB of Next line – BB of previous line
FB of next line = BB of previous line + Included angle
if value comes out > 360°, then deduct 360°
B

BB of
previous line

A C

Sum of interior angle of a polygon = (2N-4)*90o

Sum of Exterior angle of a polygon = (2N+4)*90o
Magnetic field of earth :
 Earth acts as a powerful magnet with its magnetic lines of forces running from south
end to north end.
 Magnetic forces are horizontal at equator.
 Lines of forces gradually get inclined from equator towards magnetic poles.
 At poles these are practically vertical.
 Magnetic needle when freely suspended at its centre of gravity, is influenced by
earth’s magnetic field and aligns itself parallel to lines of magnetic force at that point.
 Magnetic field indicated by magnetic needle at that point defines the magnetic
meridian.
 The vertical angle mode by the magnetic needle (ie magnetic lines of forces) with the
earth surface is called as dip.
 At poles dip = 90° ie needle becomes vertical.
 At equator dip = 0, ie needle is parallel to surface of earth or horizontal.
 Between poles and equator dip is between 0 – 90°.
Magnetic declination (d):
Generally the magnetic meridian and true meridian and does not coincide with each
other.
The horizontal angle between true meridian and magnetic meridian at the time of
observation is called magnetic declination or simply declination

N (–ve)d
TN
(+) d
N
d
West East

S
TS
S
Variation of magnetic declination :
Declination at a place changes from time to time declination at the same time also
varies from place to place
The variation of declination is shown by isogonic lines.
Isogonics lines : Line passing through surface of earth of which declination is same (at a
given point of time)
Agonic lines : These are special isogonics lines which pass through points having 0
declination or at all the points an agonic lines the true meridian and magnetic
meridian will coincide with each other.

There are 4 types of variation magnetic declination of place :

(i) Secular variation (ii) Annual variation.
(iii) Diurnal Variation (iv) Irregular Variation.
Secular variation :
 This variation occur continuously over a long period of time
 This variation approximately follows a sine curve over a period of 300 years
 Times period of variation may be even more
 There in no reliable method of predicting secular variation
(+)
O O O

Annual variation : (–)

 Variation is declination in an year. Its caused due to revolution of earth around the
sun.
 Annual variation is not some as annual rate of change of secular variation.
Diurnal: It’s the variation of declination in 1 day.
Its caused due to rotation of earth on its even axis.
Its observed that :
(a) Its higher at poles and lower at equator
(b) Its higher during day and lower at night
(c) Its higher in summer and lower in winter
(d) It changes from year to year
Irregular variation :
 It occurs due to earthquake. Volcanic eruptions etc.
 Depending on the magnitude of disturbances irregular variation can be quite large up
to 2 degree.
Local attraction :
 Local attraction is the attraction of magnetic needle to a local magnetic field other
than earth’s magnetic field.
 Its caused by any iron material in the vicinity of compass station e.g.: Iron, fence, iron
pipes, bars, vehicles, iron deposits, steel wrist watches, pen, belt, buckle, arrow etc.
 Under the influence of local magnetic field the magnetic needle will deviate from the
magnetic meridian which results in erronious magnetic bearing of the traverse line.
MN

(–ve) MN
NMN (+ve)
East L.A
West L.A
 d
b
How to detect it :
b = a + 180°

 To determine the Local attraction its mandatory to take both fore bearing and back
bearing of each line.
 The 2 bearing should differ by 180° provided there are no instrumental error
 It the value considerably deviates from 180°, Local attraction is suspected.
(a) At both the station (b) At Any of the station
 If there is a Local attraction a station all the bearings measured at the station will be
affected by equal amount
Correction of Local attraction :
Method 1 : By calculating Local attraction at each station (Suitable for open traverse)
In this method Local attraction is found out at each station and then required correction is
applied to the observed bearings.
Step :
i. Observe a line where FB and BB exactly difference by 180°
ii. End stations of such lines are free from local attraction and all the bearing observed
from such stations will be free from local attraction.
iii. With the help of bearing of the next line (FB) and previous line (BB), bearings of all
the other lines are found out.
Method 2 (By included angles) : (Suitable for closed traverse)
 In this method included angles are used for determining the correct
bearings.
 The included angle computed from the bearings is not affected by local
attraction.
Step :
(i) Calculated the included angles of the traverse and check there sum against (2N ± 4)
90°
(ii) If there is any error in the observed bearing other than local attraction, the
theoretical sum of the included angle will not tally with the sum of calculated
included angle
(iii) Distribute the error (if any) equally to all the angles.
Step :
(iv) Locate a line whose FB and BB differ exactly by 180°
(v) Find out the correct bearing of successive lines by using correct observed bearings
and correct included angle.
 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. If the declination is 5°40¢W, which one of the following true bearing would represent
the magnetic bearing of S25°20¢E?
(a) S19°20¢E (b) S 31°0¢E
(c) S 20°0¢E (d) S 19°20¢W
2. Pick out the incorrect statement.
(a) The direction of magnetic meridian is variable.
(b) The direction of true meridian is invariable.
(c) The magnetic bearing of line varies with time.
(d) Magnetic meridian through various stations are considered not parallel poles in
plane surveying.
3. The magnetic needle in a prismatic compass is placed
(a) at the bottom of the graduated aluminium ring
(b) above the graduated aluminium ring
(c) below the brass box
(d) below the needle lifter, but above the bottom inside the compass
4. The true bearing of a line AB is S 30°E. If the declination is 6° West, then what is the
magnetic bearing?
(a) S 36° E (b) N 36° W
(c) S 24° E (d) N 24° W
5. Diurnal variation is greater
(a) in winter than in summer
(b) at smaller latitudes than at higher latitudes
(c) at magnetic equator points
(d) in summer than in winter
6. Consider the following in the context of variations in magnetic declination:
1. Secular 2. Diurnal
3. Annual 4. Regular
Which of these are relevant?
(a) 1, 2 and 3(b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 and 4 only
7. The following equipments can be used to lay out horizontal angles in field:
1. Microptic theodolite
2. Chain and metallic tape
3. Vernier theodolite
4. Prismatic compass
The correct sequence of the decreasing order of their accuracies is
(a) 2, 4, 3, 1 (b) 2, 3, 4, 1
(c) 1, 4, 3, 2 (d) 1, 3, 4, 2
8. Which of the following variations of magnetic declination are correctly matched?
1. Diurnal variation … Variation whose time period varies from 100-350 years
2. Annual variation … Annual rate of change of secular variation
3. Secular variation … Variation of declination periodic in character
4. Irregular variation … Caused due to magnetic storms in earth’s magnetic field
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1, 3 and 4(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
9. Assertion (A): The magnetic bearings of different lines cannot be regarded as fixed.
Reason (R): The magnetic meridian changes its direction due to variation from time
to time, the magnetic bearings of the survey line also change.
Of these statements:
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) both A and R true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
10. The direction of surveylines may be expressed in terms of
(a) included angles between them (b) bearings
(c) both of the above (d) none of the above
11. The temperary adjustments of surveyor compass involves
(a) centring only
(b) levelling only
(c) centring and levelling
(d) centring, levellingand focussing the prism
12. Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle it makes with
(a) true meridian (b) magnetic meridian
(c) arbitrary meridian (d) all of the above
13. Dip is defined as
(a) the smaller horizontal angle, a survey line makes with the true meridian
(b) the angle, which a freely suspended needle makes with the horizontal plane
(c) the angle which a survey line makes with some reference direction
(d) none of the above
14. The bearing of a line in the opposite direction of the progress of survey is known as
(a) fore bearing (b) back bearing
(c) reduced bearing (d) arbitrary bearing
15. Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) Local attraction affects included angles.
(b) The position of E and W are interchanged in prismatic compass.
(c) Dip of magnetic needle is the angle between themagnetic north and true north.
(d) None of the above.
16. The annual variation of magnetic declination at a place is caused because of rotation
of
(a) moon about earth (b) earth about its own axis
(c) earth about sun (d) moon about sun
17. Survey is preferred with true meridians because these
(a) converge at poles
(b) do not change with time
(c) facilitate plotting
(d) all the above
18. Pick out the correct statement:
(a) Lines joining places of equal magnetic declination are known as isogonic lines.
(b) Line joining places of zero magnetic declination are known as agonic lines.
(c) On agonic line, the magnetic needle defines true as well as magnetic north.
(d) All the above are correct.
CHAPTER – 4
Theodolite
 Introductions
 A theodolite is an important instrument used for measuring horizontal and vertical
angles in surveying.
 It can also be used for a number of surveying operations, such as prolonging a line,
measuring distances indirectly and levelling.
Classification
Transit Theodolite
 A theodolite is said to be a transit one when its telescope can be rotated through 180°
in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis, thus directing the telescope in exactly
opposite direction.
Non-Transit Theodolite Otherwise Its Called
 A theodolite is said to be a non-transit one when its telescope cannot be rotated
through 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis. Such theodolites are obsolete
nowadays.
Main parts of Vernier Theodolite
Telescope
 The telescope is mounted on a horizontal spindle called the horizontal axis or the
trunnion axis.
Altitude Bubble
 To make the index arm truly horizontal during temporary adjustment, altitude bubble
is used.
 In some theodolites, the altitude bubble tube is attached to the telescope.
Striding Level
 A very sensitive level is sometimes mounted at right angle to the telescope axis is
called striding level. The striding level is used in astronomical observation for levelling
the horizontal axis or measuring any error in the level of the axis.
Upper Plate
 At its lower face, the upper plate is
attached to the vertical spindle, known as
the inner spindle or the inner axis.
 The inner spindle rotates in the outer
spindle attached to the lower plate when
the upper plate is unclamped.
 The upper plate can be clamped to the
lower plate with the help of upper clamp
screw.
 After the upper plate is clamped, both the upper and lower plates move together as
one unit provided that lower clamp is unclamped.
 The upper plate has two verniers, designated as vernier A and vernier B. These
verniers are fixed diametrically opposite to each other. If the upper clamp is
unclamped, the upper plate rotates with respect to the lower plate and the vernier
readings change.
 If the upper clamp is tightened, the vernier readings does not change.

 Lower Plate
 The lower plate is graduated in degrees from 0º to
360º with least count of 20´.
 The least count of the verniers is 20´´.
 Both upper & lower clamp screw clamped : No movement of Theodolite.

 Lower clamp screw tight, upper one unclamped: Lower plate does not move upper
plate moves. Thus the vernier moves and hence reading as recorded using vernier,
changes.

 Lower clamp screw unclamped & upper clamp screw tight: Both upper and lower
plate moves together. Thus movement of vernier w.r. to horizontal circle reading is
zero. Hence, reading as measured by vernier does not change.
Plate Level
 A level tube, called plate level, is mounted on the upper plate. The bubble is centered
with the help of leveling screws.
 These plate levels are used to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly vertical.
Levelling Head
 The levelling head consists of two parallel plates, separated by three levelling screws.
The upper parallel plate of the levelling head is known as the tribrach and the lower
one is known as the trivet stage or foot plate.
 Plumb bob is connected to the hook at the lower end of the inner spindle.
Shifting Head
 The instrument is first approximately centered over the station by moving the tripod
legs.
 Exact centering is then achieved with the help of the shifting head.
Basic Definitions
Centering
 It is the process of setting up the instrument exactly over the station mark. A plumb
bob suspended from a small hook attached to the underside of the inner spindle is
used for Precise centering.
Horizontal Axis
 It is also called the Trunnion axis or transverse axis. It is the axis about which the
telescope can be rotated in a vertical plane.
Vertical Axis
 It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in a horizontal plane. It is also
known as azimuth axis.
Line of Sight
 It is the imaginary line passing through the intersection of the cross-hairs of the
diaphragm and the optical centre of the objective. It is also known as line of line of
Collimation.
 When line of sight comes in horizontal plane it is called as line of collimation.
Axis of Level Tube
 It is a line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level tube at its centre.
 Axis of plate level is horizontal when bubble is centered.
Face Right
 When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the right hand side of the observer, the
position is called face right and the observation made is called face right observation.
Face Left
 When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the left hand side of the observer, the
position is called face left and the observation made is called face left observation.
Telescope Normal
 The telescope is said to be normal or direct when its vertical circle is to the left hand
side of the observer and the bubble is up.
Telescope Inverted
 The telescope is said to be inverted when its vertical circle is to the right hand side of
the observer and the bubble is down.
Transit
 It is also called as plunging or reversing. This is the operation of revolving the
telescope by 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis, thus making it point
exactly in the opposite direction.
Swinging of the Telescope
 Revolving the telescope in the horizontal plane, about its vertical axis is called
swinging of telescope or simply swing. A right swing means clockwise rotation of the
telescope, whereas a left swing means anticlockwise rotation of the telescope.
Changing Face
 It is the operation of bringing the telescope from the face left condition to the face
right condition and vice versa.
 The face is changed by plunging the telescope and swinging it by 180º.
 The errors that are eliminated by changing face are as below:
1. Error due to line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
2. Error due to horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the vertical axis.
3. Error due to line of collimation not being parallel to the axis of the altitude level.
Double Sighting
 It is the process of measurement of a
horizontal angle or a vertical angle twice;
once with the telescope in the normal
condition and once with the telescope in the
inverted condition.
 Fundamental lines of theodolite
1. Horizontal circle perpendicular to vertical axis
2. Vertical circle perpendicular to horizontal axis
3. Vertical axis must pass through the centre of
graduated horizontal circle.
4. Horizontal axis must pass through the centre of vertical circle.

5. Tangent to plate bubble tube must be perpendicular to vertical axis.

6. Line of sight must be perpendicular to transit axis (trunnion axis).

7. Transit axis must be perpendicular to vertical axis.

8. For horizontal position of telescope and for altitude bubble at centre, reading on
vertical circle must be zero.

9. Line of sight, horizontal axis & vertical axis must meet at one point called the centre of
instrument.
Temporary Adjustments of a Theodolite
 The following five temporary adjustments are required.
1. Setting up
2. Centering
3. Levelling
4. Focusing the eyepiece
5. Focusing the objective
Personal Error

1. Errors due to inaccurate centering.

2. Error due to inaccurate levelling.

3. Error due to slip in screws.

4. Error due to improper use of tangent screws

5. Error due to temperature effect:

6. Error due to refraction effect:

Order of Permanent Adjustments
 The permanent adjustments of a theodolite are so arranged in sequence that the next
adjustment does not disturb the results obtained from the previous adjustments.
 If these adjustment are carried out haphazardly, the new adjustment disturbs the
effects of the previous adjustments. Hence adjustment of the theodolite should be
done in the order given below.
Permanent Adjustments:

1. Plate level test: Make the plate bubbles central to their run when the vertical axis of
the theodolite is truly vertical (Plate level test).

2. Cross-hair ring test: Make the vertical cross-hair lie in a plane perpendicular to the
horizontal axis.

3. Collimation in azimuth test: Make the line of sight perpendicular to the horizontal
axis
4 Spire test: Make the horizontal axis perpendicular to vertical axis
5. Bubble tube adjustment: Make the telescope bubble central when the line of sight
is horizontal.
6. Vertical Arc test: Make the vertical circle indicate zero when the line of sight is
perpendicular to the vertical axis
 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Assertion (A): The vertical angles cannot be measured by the method of repetition.
Reason (R): There is only one rotation that is possible in the vertical plane.
Of these statements:
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
2. Consider the following operations in a spire test:
1. Depress telescope and sight a point on the ground nearer to the instrument.
2. Clamp horizontal plates.
3. Sight a well-defined high point on a high building.
4. Change face and repeat the procedure.
The correct sequence of these operations is
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4
(b) 3, 1, 2, 4
(c) 3, 2, 1, 4
(d) 2, 1, 3, 4
3. Consider the following statements:
Assertion (A): In a theodolite if the lower clamp is not properly clamped or the
instrument is not firmly tightened on the tripod head, the error introduced is known
as ‘slip’.
Reason (R): If the shifting head is loose, the error ‘slip’ will be introduced.
Of these statements:
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
4. Consider the following statements about theodolites:
1. Transit theodolite is a theodolite in which the telescope can be transited.
2. EDMI is a theodolite fitted with a micrometer for measurements.
3. A double reading theodolite is one in which diametrically opposite segments of
the graduated circle are brought into view and the readings are averaged.
Which of these satements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only
5. In a transit theodolite, error due to eccentricity of verniers is eliminated by reading
(a) both verniers
(b) both right swing and left swing
(c) right and left faces
(d) different parts of main scale
6. When a theodolite is in proper adjustment, which of the following conditions
between fundamental lines are satisfied?
1. Axis of the plate level is perpendicular to the vertical axis.
2. The line of collimation is at right angles to the vertical axis.
3. The axis of the altitude level is parallel to the line collimation when it is
horizontal and the vertical circle reads zero.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1, 2 and 3
7. Match List-I (Operations in measurement of horizontal angles with theodolite) with
List-II (Explanation of the operation) and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists:
Codes:
List-I
A B C D
A. Reduction to centre
(a) 3 4 2 5
B. Closing of horizon
(b) 5 4 2 1
C. Shifting the limb
(c) 2 3 1 5
D. Swinging the alidade
(d) 3 5 4 2
List-II
1. Tilting the telescope in altitude
2. Turning the telescope about the inner axis
3. Recalculating the angles using readings from satellite stations
4. Changing the vernier setting
5. Bisecting the initial signal after finishing all observations around a station
8. Assertion (A): In a theodolite, if the line of collimation s not exactly perpendicular to
the horizontal axis of the instrument, it will not revolve in a vertical plane when the
telescope is raised or lowered.
Reason (R): The rotation of the telescope would generate a cone with its axis
coinciding with the horizontal axis.
Of these statements:
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
9. Match List-I (Source of errors in theodolite observation) with List-II (Elimination
process) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I
Codes:
A. Eccentriciy between inner and outer axes
A B C D
B. Imperfect graduations of the horizontal scale
(a) 1 4 3 2
C. Imperfect adjustments of plate level
(b) 3 4 1 2
D. Line of collimation not being perpendicular
(c) 3 2 1 4
to the horizontal axis
(d) 1 2 3 4
List-II
1. Capstan headed screw adjustment
2. Double centering process
3. Taking the mean of two vernier readings
4. Taking observations over different portions of the horizontal scale
10. A telescope is said to be inverted, if the
(a) vetical circle is to its right and the bubble of the telescope is down
(b) vertical circle is to its right and the buble of the telescope is up
(c) vertical circle is to its left and the bubble of the telescope is down
(d) vertical circle is to its left and the bubble of the telescope is up
11. A telescope is said to be normal or direct if its
(a) vertical circle is to theleft of the observer and the bubble is up
(b) verticle circle is to the left of the observer and the bubble is down
(c) vertical circle is to the right of the observer and the bubble is down
(d) vertical circle is to the right of the observer and the bubble is up
12. The process of establishing intermediate points with the help of a theodolite, on a
given straight line whose ends are not intervisible is called
(a) centring (b) levelling
(c) balancing in (d) lining in
13. Which of the following is a function of the levelling head?
(a) To support the main part of the instrument
(b) To attach the theodolite to the tripod
(c) To provide a means for levelling the theodolite
(d) All of the above
14. If the lower clamp screw is tightened and the upper clamp screw is losened, the
theodolite may be rotated
(a) with a relative motion between the vernier and the graduated scale of the
lower plate
(b) without a relative motion between the vernier and the graduated scale of the
lower plate
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) horizontal axis
15. Removal of parallax may be achieved by
(a) refocussing the objective
(b) refocussing the eyepiece
(c) refocussing the eyepiece and the objective
(d) moving the shifting centre
16. Accurate measurement of deflection angles with a transit not properly adjusted are
made by
(a) setting the vernier A to read zero at the back station and then plunging the
telescope
(b) setting the vernier A read zero at the back station and then turning the
instrument to the forward station
(c) taking two back sights, one with the telescope normal and the other with the
telescope inverted
(d) taking back sight with the face left.
17. Centring error of a theodolite produces an error
(a) in all the angles equally
(b) which does not vary with direction of bisection
(c) which varies with the direction of bisection and inversely with the length of
sight
(d) none of the above
18. Pick up the correct statement.
(a) A four-screw levelling head is better than the three-screw one.
(b) Centring in a theodolite is facilitated by a movable head.
(c) Two plate levels on a horizontal circle assembly are provided so that if one
becomes sluggish, the other can be used.
(d) It is better to provide a bubble tube on the telescope rather than on the index
frame.
19. Arrange the order of permanent adjustments of a theodolite.
(I) Plate level test
(II) Cross-hair ring test
(III) Bubble tube adjustment test
(IV) Spire test
(V) Collimation in azimuth test
(VI) Vertical arc test
(a) I–IV–II–V–III–VI
(b) II–I–V–IV–VI–III
(c) I–II–V–IV–III–VI
(d) III–II–I–V–IV–VI
CHAPTER – 5
Traversing
 Introductions
 It’s a series of connected lines whose length and directions are measured in the field
 Transverse are classified as :
(i) Closed Traverse (ii) Open Traverse

Measured in traversing :
Linear measurements Singular measurement
(i) Chain or tape (i) Free needle method/loose needle method
(ii) Tacheometry (ii) Fast needle method
(iii) EDMI (iii) Included angle
(iv) Direct angle
(v) Deflection angle
 In traversing linear measurement equipment should be chosen such that degree of
accuracy is of same order of angular measurement
 If very precise equipments are used for angular measurements these equally precise
equipments shall be used for distance measurement.
 If q is the least count of angular measurement equipment ; then linear measurement
equipment used must have error of the order of

 tan  
l
l 
 B MB
Angular measurements :
MB
 Loose needle / free needle method :
C MB
 In loose needle method magnetic bearing of each line is A

measured at every station i.e. direction of magnetic D

meridian established at each traverse station MB

Fast needle method :

B Ð Included
 In fast needle method magnetic meridian is established
only at the starting station. MB
A
 Magnetic bearing of all other line are determine C
indirectly from the Magnetic bearing (MB) of first line and
included angle.
P
 Its more accurate than loose needle method
Included angle methods : It’s the most commonly used method
(We can detect any instrumental error) (We can detect any
instrumental error)
 MB of any 1 line generally (the 1st line) and all the included
angles are measured B
Ð Included
 Bearing of all the other lines are determined from the
bearing of initial line and included angles are measured MB
C
 Bearing of all the other lines are determined from the
bearing of initial line and included angles.
P
 More accurate than fast needle method
Direct angle method : (Open traverse)

direct angles

 This method is similar to method of Included angle

 Direct angular or angles to the right are measured
 Generally used for open traverse
 Deflection angle method : (Used generally when deflection is small)
 Deflection angle method is used for traverse in which traverse line make small
difference angles.
 Its generally used for open traverse conducted for survey of roads, railway, canal,
pipelines, sewer etc.
 Angle of misclosure :
 In a loop traverse the difference between actual sum of measured angles and
theoretical sum is called as angle of misclosure.
 N= No. of angles E K N
 E= Permissible limit of angle of misclosure
 K= Constant depending upon least count of the theodolite number of repetition and
accuracy desired generally value of k = 20 ”
 To correct this angle of misclosure in a closed loop traverse
generally 3 methods are used:
(i) Arbitrary method N
(ii) Angle correction l sinq A
(iii) Round off average correction method
Latitude
q l l cos q
Latitude and departure :
 Latitude (L) of a line is the orthographic protection on N – S W
departure
E
line on reference meridian a
(+ve) ® Northing
(–ve) ® Southing B
S
 Departure (D) of a line is its orthographic projection on the
E–W direction i.e. meridian perpendicular to the reference
meridian
+ve ® Easting
–ve ® Westing
 Note : algebraic sign of cosine and be sine are quadrant IV
(+ , – )
N
quadrant I
(+ , + )
D
D 4

automatically incorporated in latitude and departure l4

D 1
A L a titu d e D epartu re
4
in case of WCB whereas in Quadrantal bearing we L 4 1
l1
L 1

have to incorporate the sign. W

o
E
2 l2 L
Consecutive dependent coordinates : L 3 l3 3 2

D
 Dependent co-ordinate system quadrant III C D 3
2
quadrant II
(– , – ) S (– , + )

D34 (L23 – D23)D23

3
L34 L23
dependent
co-ordinate 4 2 (l12 sin q, l 12 cos q) (L12, D12) (latitude, departure)
system (–L34– D34)
Ol2 L12
L41 D41 (y1, x1)
1 (x1, y 1)
x1 x1 y1 D12
y1
 Dependent co-ordinates :
x3 (y3, x3)
 If the coordinate of end point of a line is defined w.r.t. Its
initial point, then its called as consecutive or dependent
(y4, x4)
co-ordinate system. y3 x2
(y2, x2)
 Independent co-ordinates : x4
y4
 If the co-ordinate of a point is difference w.r.t a common x1
y2
origin then its called as independent co-ordinate system (y1, x1)
y2
 These are also called total latitude and total departure of
a line.

 Total latitude departure of any point is equal to the latitude departure of the starting
point + algebraic sum of all latitude departure up to that point.
 Note : In independent co-ordinate system error is localized whereas in consecutive
dependent co-ordinate system error expands.
Check in closed traverse
 Loop traverse SL = 0, SD=0
 Link traverse

2 4 6

1
(L1, D 1) 3 5 7 (L7, D 7)

SL = latitude of last point – latitude of 1st point

SD = Departure of last point – Departure 1st point
Closing error / error of closure :
If the traverse has an error of closure it will not close when plotted on paper
(i) Loop traverse : closing error : AA’ ie coordinate of A’ w.r.t the starting point.
A SOE A (Cy, – Cx)

ey q E
Cy

A’
ex A
(–ey, e x) Cx

ex e  ezx  ezy ex = SD , ey = SL
tan  
ey
Note : Signs of ex and ey will define the quadrant in which closing error lies. Sign and
direction of correction will be opposite of closing error

D
tan  
L

(ii) Link traverse :

B D (y, x)
6
e
ey
A E’
C ex
(y’, x’)
ex
tan   Quadrantal bearing ex = (x’ – x)
ey
ey = (y’ – y)
Relative error of closure :
e (magnetic of error of closure)
Relative error of closure =
p (Perimeter oft raverse)

1

p/e

 Relative error of closure is also called as relative accuracy or degree of accuracy.

 Adjustment of traverse :
 It there is error of closure its to be adjusted such that error of closure becomes zero
 Error is adjusted by distributing the error in various sides of the traverse such that
traverse its closed geometrically.
 There are various methods of adjusting the traverse
(i) Arbitrary method (ii) Bowditch method
(iii) Graphical method (iv) Transit rule
(v) Axis method
Arbitrary method :
 In this method closing error is distributed arbitrarily accuracy to the discretion of the
surface based an field condition.
Bowditch rule :
 This is applied generally to compass surveys also called as compass rule. Its generally
used for adjusting a traverse in which angles and distances are measured with the
some precision.
 Bowditch rule assumes that closing error is due to accidental / random errors.
(compensating error)

Probable error in traverse line  L (L ® length of line)

Formula :
Error in latitude / departure of a line

Total error inlatitude / departure  (length ofl ine)


Perimeter oft raverse)

Total error in departure

e x ´ LAB Length of AB
eD- AB =
(AB + BC + CD + DA) Perimeter

Total correctioninlatitude / departure  Length ofl ine

Correction 
(Perimeter oft he traverse)
 When the traverse is adjusted by Bowditch rule both lengths and bearing of the line
are changed
 Compared to transit rule, length are changed less and angles are changed more.
Graphical method / proportionate method :
This method is based on Bowditch rule, hence its used for compass traverse
Transit rule :
Its used to balance a traverse in which the angular measurement are more accurate than
linear measurements e.g. Theodolite traverse

Error in latitude / departure of a line =

Total error inlatitude / departure X (Numerical value ofl atitude / departure of aline)

Arithmatic sum ofl atitude / departure ofl ines
 In transit rule angles are changed less and length are changed more
 Note : If a line has 0 latitude / departure, there will be no correction to the latitude /
departure by transit rule.
 In other words it’s a line runs parallel to co-ordinate axis adjustment will not change
the bearing of line. But if line is inclined to coordinate axis, adjustment will affect the
bearing.
Axis method :
 In this method correction are only applied to the length angles are measured
precisely and distances are not measured precisely.
 Directions of lines are not affected and general shape of the traverse in unaffected.
Gayle’s traverse table :
 Traverse computation are generally done in a tabular form known as Gayle’s traverse
table. In this case, we optimally find out independent co-ordinates of various stations
after applying necessary corrections.
Note : Its better to chose the initial independent co-ordinates such that whole traverse
comes in 1st Quadrant and independent co-ordinates of all the other stations are (+ve)

Inversing :
B
(LB, DB)
LAB
q

A (LA, DA)
 Inversing is the computation of bearing and length of a line from its co-ordinates.
 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. In a closed traverse, the sum of south latitudes exceeds the sum of north latitudes
and the sum of east departures exceeds the sum of west departures. The closing line
will lie in the
(a) N-W quadrant (b) N-E quadrant
(c) S-E quadrant (d) S-W quadrant
2. The direction of the magnetic meridian is established at each traverse station and the
direction of the line is determined with reference to the magnetic meridian. This
method of traversing is called
(a) fast needle method(b) loose needle method
(c) bearing method (d) fixed needle method
3. Consider the following assumptions of Bowditch method:
1. Angular measurements are more precise than linear measurements.
2. Linear measurements are more precise than angular measurements.
3. Error in linear measurements are proportional L to .
4. Correction to latitude or departure of any side
Total error in Length oft hat side
 
L (or D) Perimeter of
traverse
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 2, 3 and 4(d) 1, 3 and 4
4. Consider the following steps:
1. Calculation of SL & SD.
2. Correction of latitudes and departures.
3. Calculation of bearings.
4. Calculation of interior angles.
5. Calculation of independent coordinates.
The correct sequence of these steps in Gale’s traverse table calculations is
(a) 3, 4, 5, 2, 1 (b) 4, 3, 1, 2, 5
(c) 2, 1, 3, 4, 5 (d) 4, 3, 5, 2, 1
5. In theodolite traversing, for the calculation of independent rectangular co-ordinates
from the field observations, some of the computations are indicated below:
1. Computation of reduced bearing of each traverse leg
2. Calculation of the closing error
3. Balancing of consecutive co-ordinates
4. Calculation of consecutive co-ordinates
The correct sequence in which these computations are to be made is
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 2, 4, 3, 1
(c) 1, 4, 2, 3 (d) 3, 1, 4, 2
6. Which of the following methods can be used for finding the direction of the survey
lines while traversing?
(a) Free needle method (b) Fast needle method
(c) Both of the above (d) None of the above
7. Latitude of a line is defined as
(a) Orthographic projection of a survey line on the E–W line
(b) Orthographic projection of a survey line on the reference meridian
(c) Length of a survey line corrected for various chain/tape corrections
(d) None of the above
8. In open traversing, which of the following methods is preferred?
(a) Method of direct angles
(b) Method of exterior angles
(c) Method of deflection angles
(d) Method of interior angles
9. The departure of a line of traverse is its length multiplied by
(a) cosine of reduced bearing
(b) sine of reduced bearing
(c) secant of reduced bearing
(d) tangent of reduced bearing
10. The Gale method of traversing consists of plotting the points by
(a) independent coordinates
(b) consecutive coordinates
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) Chords
11. In a traverse survey, closing error means
(a) the error in the closing of the traversing operation
(b) the actual distance by which the traverse fails to close
(c) the distance between the starting and end point of an open traverse
(d) the bearings observed are unaffected by local attraction
12. In case of angular measurements being more precise than the linear measurements,
the traverse can be balanced by
(a) graphical method
(b) theodolite correction
(c) Bowditch rule
(d) transit rule
13. The most accurate method of plotting a traverse is by
(a) independent coordinates
(b) consecutive coordinates
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) tangents
14. In traversing, linear measurements are done with chain and angular measurements
by
(a) chain
(b) compass
(c) theodolite
(d) any of the above instruments
15. An open traverse can be checked by
(a) included angles
(b) deflection angles
(c) astronomical observations
(d) linear measurements
16. Pick out the correct statement

(a) Transit rule is also known as compass rule

(b) Graphical adjustment of closing error is based on transit rule

(c) If e is the error of closure and the number of lines in the traverse is 5, then the
correction to the second observed bearing is (2)2 e/5.

(d) If n is the number of sides of a traverse, then the angular error of closure should
not exceed by least count n
CHAPTER – 6
Levelling
 Introduction
 Levelling is the operation required in the
determination or, more strictly, the
comparison of heights of points on the
surface of the earth. H o r iz on t a l lin e

A C or rection
 The value for mean sea level (m.s.l.) as datum B L ev el lin e f o r e ff e c t = ( C )
of cu r v a tu r e
is obtained by averaging the elevations of h
high and low tides, at several points, for a
long period of time, about 19 years. M ea n sea lev el

 A level line is one that is at a constant height

relative to mean sea level, and because it
follows the mean surface of the earth it must
be a curved line.
 Elevation: It is the vertical distance of the point above or below the datum surface.
 It should be noted that the vertical distances are measured along the direction of
gravity.
 Altitude: It is the vertical distance of the point above mean sea level. Therefore, if the
datum surface is the mean sea level, the elevation is the same as the altitude.
Vertical Line
 The line defined by a plumb line.
Bench Marks (B.M.)
G.T.S. Bench Marks
 The great trigonometrical survey (G.T.S.) bench marks are established by the Survey of
India throughout the country. The levels of the G.T.S. bench marks are determined
very accurately with respect to the mean sea level at Bombay port.
Permanent Bench Marks
 The permanent bench marks are established at a closer interval between widely
spaced G.T.S. bench marks. The bench marks are either established by PWD or SOI.
Temporary Bench Marks
 These are the bench marks established temporarily whenever required. These are
generally the points at which a day’s work is closed and from which next day’s work is
started.
Arbitrary Bench Marks
 These are the bench marks whose elevations are arbitrary assumed for leveling of a
small area.
Different Methods of Levelling
Direct Levelling
 A spirit level fixed to the telescope of a leveling instrument is used to make the line of
sight horizontal. Then all the vertical distances are measured with respect to this
horizontal line of sight.
 Trigonometric Levelling
 As the trigonometric relations are used to determine the elevations, the method is
called as trigonometric leveling.
Barometric Levelling
 Barometric leveling is another type of indirect leveling in which the elevations of
various points are determined indirectly from the changes in the atmospheric
pressure.
Hypsometric Levelling
 The difference of elevations is determined by noting down the temperature at which
water starts boiling.
Classification of Direct Levelling Methods
Simple Levelling
Differential Levelling
 This method is used when the two points whose difference of elevation is required are
situated quite apart.
Check leveling
 It is a type of differential leveling done for the purpose of checking of elevations which
have already been obtained.
Fly Levelling
 It is a type of differential leveling done for the purpose of determination of
approximate elevations of different points.
Profile Levelling
Cross-section Levelling
 This type of differential leveling is done for determining the difference of the ground
surface along the lines perpendicular to the centre line of the proposed road, canal,
etc.
Reciprocal Levelling
 It is a method of leveling used for the determination of the difference of elevations of
the two points which are situated quite apart, and it is not possible to set up the
instrument midway between these points.
Precise Levelling
 It is a very accurate method of differential leveling used when high precision is
required. The instruments and methods used are such that a very high degree of
accuracy is achieved.
 Aplanation: Aplanation means the absence of spherical aberration. An aplanatic
combination of lenses is a compound lens which is free from the spherical aberration.
 Achromatism: Achromatism means the absence of chromatic aberration. An
achromatic combination of lenses is a compound lens which is free from the
chromatic aberration.
Level Tubes/Bubble tube

A d ju s t in g s cr ew
B u b b le G la ss tu be
C em en t

S p r in g F lu id w ith lo w v iscos ity

 When the bubble is centered in the tube the axis of the bubble tube is said to be
horizontal.
 Hence the level tube gives the direction of the horizontal plane at that point.
Sensitivity of a Level Tube
C en tr e of b u bb le

H or iz on ta l
d m o v e d p os it io n o f
cen tr e of b u b b le 412.53
Sensitivity 
R R


 That Sensitivity expressed as seconds/ division is not a definite quantity unless

the length of the division is also specified.
 If not mentioned the length of the division should be taken as 2 mm.
The sensitivity of a level tube can be increased by changing the following parameters:
1. By increasing the radius R.
2. By decreasing the viscosity of the liquid.
3. By increasing the length of the tube.
4. By decreasing the roughness of the inner walls of the tube.
Determination of Sensitivity of a Bubble Tube

d s
Sensitivity ()   radians
R L n
Dumpy Level
 The sensitivity of the level tube is generally per 2 mm.
 The line joining the point of intersection of the cross-hairs and the optical centre of
the objective is called the line of collimation. When the instrument is in adjustment
 The line of collimation is perpendicular to the vertical axis. Also, the line of collimation
is parallel to the bubble tube axis, and is horizontal.
 The procedure for leveling the instrument is exactly the same as for a theodolite.
Levelling Staff

 A leveling staff is a graduated rod of rectangular cross-section.

 The leveling staff is kept vertical at the point whose elevation is either known or is to
be determined, and the reading of the staff is taken from the leveling instrument.

 These divisions are painted alternatively black and white.

Procedure in Levelling
General Procedure
 The instrument is set up at a convenient position P such that a bench mark (BM) may
be observed.
 This first reading, made with the staff on a point of known reduced level (BM) is
known as a back sight (BS)
 The staff is now held at other points and readings, which are known as intermediate
sights (IS), are taken.
 The last reading is known as a foresight (FS), hence Fore Sight is the final reading taken
before moving the instrument.
 This above procedure is repeated until all the required levels have been obtained.
Rise and Fall method
 Each reading is entered on a different line in the applicable column, except at change
points, where a foresight and a back sight entered the same line.

Back sight Interme Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Distance Remarks

diate level (m)
sight

Justification of table
 Back sight – intermediate sight
 S (Back sights) exceeds (Foresights) which implies that overall a rise has occurred
other wise fall has occurred
  Height of Collimation method
 The height of collimation is determined by adding the staff reading, which must be
a back sight, to the known RL, of the point on which the staff stands.
 All other readings are found out from the height of collimation until the instrument
is shifted to other station, where upon the new height of collimation is determined
by adding the back sight of the RL, at the change point.

Back sight Intermediate Foresight Height of Reduced Distance(m) Remarks

collimation level
 The arithmetical checks to be applied to this system of booking are below:

(BS) – (FS) = Last RL – First RL

S (all RLs except the first) = (each instrument height) × (no. of ISs and FSs deduced
from it) – S (FS +IS)
 In Rise & Fall method the check for intermediate reading is done using S Rise – S Fall
 Reduction is easier with the height of collimation method.
 Collimation method is most suited for longitudinal or cross-sectional leveling and
contouring where as Rise & Fall method is well suited for determining the difference
of levels of two points where precision is required, e.g. establishing new benchmarks.
Use of Inverted Staff
 When the point, whose elevation is to be found, is much above the line of collimation
(e.g. projection from the face of a building, underside of beams, girders and arches,
etc.), the staff is placed.
 Inverted with its zero end touching the point.
 The inverted staff reading is booked in the relevant column of the level book with a
negative sign, such that when reducing this reading from the height of collimation of
the level we get RL of soffit S t a ff
b r i d g e s o ffi t in v erted

2 .5 3 5
H e ig h t o f co llim a tio n
5 6 .5 2

1 .5 5 5
Effect of curvature of earth and refraction
 The effect of curvature of the earth and refraction is be considered when the sights are
long. This effect occurs because the difference between the level line and the
horizontal line increases as the distance of the staff station from the instrument station
increases.
 The horizontal line is tangential to the level surface at one point, whereas the level line
is perpendicular to the direction of the gravity at various points.

correction due to curvature,

Cc = – 0.0785 d2

where Cc is in meters and d in

kilometers.
 Effect of Refraction
 The density of air in the atmosphere decreases
with an increase in the altitude.
 The line of sight does not remain horizontal but it
bends downwards.
1
 The correction due to refraction is of C , i.e.
7 C
Cr = + 0.0112 d2

 where Cr is in meters and d in kilometers.

 Combined Correction
C = Cc + Cr = – 0.0785 d2 + 0.0112 d2

C = –0.0673 d2
or
 It should be noted that C is in meters and d is in kilometers.
 If it is not possible to set up the instrument to equalize the distance of B.S. and F.S.,
reciprocal levelling shall be used to neutralize the effect of curvature and refraction for
long sights.
 d
A C
Distance of Visible Horizon
h
B
h = 0.0673 d2
R


The distance d is called distance of visible horizon

d  3.854 h

where h is in meter & d is in km

Reciprocal Levelling
 Reciprocal levelling is used to determine the correct difference in the elevations of
two points which are quite a large distance apart and it is not possible to set up the
instrument midway between these two points to balance the foresight and back sight.
 Reciprocal levelling is generally used to determine the difference in elevations of
two points on the opposite banks of a river or a deep valley.
 Reciprocal levelling eliminates the need of applying “correction due to curvature
of the earth” and “refraction” and “collimation error”. It does not eliminate
parallax error.
 1
 True difference in level = [sum of apparent differences]
2
 Note that where only one instrument is used, this method corrects not only for
curvature and refraction but also for any lack of adjustment in the collimation axis.

 Correct difference of level is equal to the mean of difference of levels obtained from
the 1st set of reading and the second set of reading.
Determination of Collimation error e = e e + e c – er
 True difference of elevation = Xx1 – (Yy1 – ) where ee = Collimation error
 This total error is say e
ec = curvature error

e
 Xx2  Yy2    Xx1  Yy1  er = refraction error
2 ee = e – (ec – er)
                    
ee = e – 0.0673 d2
 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The arithmetical check for the computation of RL by “rise and fall” method is given
by
(a) SFS – SBS = RL of last station point – RL of first station point = SFall – SRise
(b) SBS – SFS = RL of first station point – RL of last station point = SRise – SFall
(c) SBS – SFS = RL of last station point – RL of first station point = SRise – SFall
(d) SBS – SFS = RL of first station point – RL of last station point = SRise – SFall
2. The sensitiveness of a bubble tube in a level would decrease if
(a) the radius of curvature of the internal surface of the tube is increased
(b) the diameter of the tube is increased
(c) the length of the vapour bubble is increased
(d) the viscosity of the liquid is increased
3. Which one of the following methods of levelling eliminates the error due to
curvature and refraction?
(a) Fly levelling
(b) Levelling by equalizing the distances of back sight and foresight
(c) Check levelling
(d) Precise levelling
4. Consider the following statements:
Reciprocal levelling eliminates the effect of
1. errors due to earth’s curvature
2. errors due to atmospheric refraction
3. mistakes in taking levelling staff readings
4. errors due to line of collimation
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
5. Which one of the following statements is not correct?
(a) Change point is a point denoting shifting of level.
(b) For levelling work both centering and levelling of a dumpy level are
prerequisite.
(c) Bench mark is a point whose RL is always known.
(d) None of the above
6. Consider the following statements:
In surveying operations, the word ‘reciprocal’ can be associated with
1. ranging 2. levelling 3. contouring
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
7. Consider the following statements:
Assertion (A): Curvature correction must be applied when the sight are long.
Reason (R): Line of collimation is not a level line but is tangential to the level line.
Of these statements:
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
8. The datum adopted in India is the mean sea level at
(a) Calcutta (b) Madras
(c) Bombay (d) Karachi
9. Line of collimation is defined as the
(a) Line joining the intersection of cross-hair, optical centre of objective and its
continuation
(b) line joining the centre of eyepiece and optical centre of objective
(c) line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the bubble tube at its midpoint
(d) inclined line of sight
10. A fixed point of reference, whose elevation is known, is called
(a) reduced level (b) benchmark
(c) change point (d) station
11. In reciprocal levelling the error which is not completely eliminated is due to
(a) curvature
(b) refraction
(c) non-adjustment of line of collimation
(d) parallax
12. The liquid in a level tube should be
(a) quick acting
(b) non-freezing
(c) stable under normal temperature variation
(d) all the above
13. Sensitivity of a bubble increases with an increase in
(i) radius of curvature of the tube
(ii) smoothness of finish of internal surface of the tube
(a) only (i) is correct
(b) only (ii) is correct
(c) both (i) and (ii) are correct
(d) none is correct
14. Apart from arithmetic, the levelling work is best checked by
(a) Height of instrument method
(b) Rise and fall method
(c) Closed loop check
(d) Open loop check
15. Which of the following sights will be applicable for a change point?
(a) Back sight
(b) Intermediate sight and fore sight
(c) Fore sight
(d) Back sight and fore sight
16. Altimetry may be depicted most accurately by
(a) Hachures
(b) relief shading
(c) layer tinting
(d) contour lines
17. Error due to inclination of line of collimation in levelling across a river can be
eliminated by
(a) reversion
(b) reciprocal ranging
(c) reciprocal levelling
(d) keeping level in middle
18. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the lists:
List-I
A. Reciprocal levelling Codes:
B. Balancing Fore Sight and Back sight distances A B C D
C. Inverted Staff Reading (a) 1 2 4 3
D. Tilting level (b) 4 2 1 3
List-II (c) 4 3 1 2
1. Points above the line of collimation (d) 1 3 4 2
2. Eliminates the collimation error
3. The vertical axis is not perpendicular to the line of collimation
4. Eliminates error due to inclined line of collimation also
19. Assertion (A): In “rise and fall” method of booking observations and reducing
elevations of points, a complete check on the reduction of RLs of intermediate
stations is there.
Reason (R): Intermediate sights are included for the calculation of rise and fall.
Ans: a
20. A lens or a combination of lenses in which no spherical aberration exists, is said to
be
(a) achromatic (b) anallactic
(c) aplanatic (d) anastigmatic
21. The two-peg test in the adjustment of a dumpy level employs the principle that

(a) equal lengths at back sight and fore sight do not affect the difference in level

(b) reciprocal levelling eliminates errors of non-parallel instrument and collimation

axes

(c) two readings from the same station will minimize errors in bubble tube axis

(d) correction is made for vertical axis at one peg and for horizontal axis at the
other peg
CHAPTER – 7
Tacheometry
 Introductions
 Tacheometry is a branch of surveying in which the horizontal distances and the
difference of elevation are determined indirectly by an instrument called as
tacheometer. Its also called as optical distance measurement method.
 On flat grounds, the accuracy of tacheometry is low but on rough remain and steep
grounds the accuracy is more.
 Tacheometry : Its essentially a transit theodolite, the diaphragm of which is furnished
with stadia wires in addition to cross wires.
 The 2 stadia hair are equidistant from central horizontal hair
 Patterns of stadia hair :
Important characteristics of tacheometry
(i) Multiplying constant (K) Þ 100
(ii) Addition constant (C) = 0
(iii) Magnification power of eye piece is kept high.
(iv) Telescope is fitted with anallactic lens.
Stadia Rod :
 It’s a vertical staff, which is used when distance b/w telescope and the staff is so large
such that the graduations become in distinct in ordinary staff. Beyond 100 m distance
stadia rod is used.
Sub tense bar : It is a horizontal bar used for distance measurement.
Methods of Tacheometry :
Stadia method :

 In this method staff intercept (b/w upper and lower stadia hair) and vertical angle q is
measured.
Fixed hair method :
 In this method the vertical spacing between upper stadia hair and lower stadia hair,
called as stadia interval is kept fixed.
 In other words when paralytic angle defined with the help of stadia wires is kept fixed
and staff intercept is varied the method is called as fixed hair method.
Movable hair method :
In this method the staff intercept is kept fixed and stadia interval (i) is varied using
micrometer sources
Note : As its in convenient to measure the stadia interval accurately un available hair
method is rarely used.
Tangential method :

D(tan q2 – tanq1) = S = Intercept made on staff held vertical

 In this second stadia hairs are not required hence this method can also be used when
stadia diaphragm is not provided.
 Staff with 2 targets at a fixed distance S is used for taking the measurements q1 and q2
(vertical angles) are measured.
 Substance bar method : A horizontal staff of fixed length is called as sub tense bar.
 Sub tense bar is placed horizontal at any station B

a
S

 The horizontal distance D is calculated with help of S and a

Principle of stadia method :
 During this process line of sight is horizontal and staff is kept vertical
A
b
Stadia S D=u+d
interval 1°C F C
f
a 1 1 1
Vertical axis of instrument
B
   lens formula
f v u
v u
D    S  (f  d)  D  KS  C
distance b/w D f
image and lens distance b/w object i
and lens
 Let us assume that line of sight is horizontal and staff is kept vertical and late scope is
external focusing type
D = KS + C
 The above equation is tacheometric distance equation, K and C are multiplying and
additive constants.
K ¹ stadia interval factor = (f/i)
 For the ease in calculation stadia interval is kept such that value of K = 100
 Additive constant (C) = (f + d) for external focusing telescope the value of C = (0.25 –
0.35)m
 If the analytic lens is used into the telescope, the value of additive constant becomes
0 and tacheometric distance equation is simplified as D = KS
 Distance and elevation formula for inclined line of sight :
Case 1 : Line of sight is inclined upwards and staff is held vertical

 D = KS cos2 q + C cos q
 V = (KS cos q + C) sin q
1
v  KS sin2  C sin 
2

RL of staff station :
RL staff station = HI + V – H
Line of sight is inclined downwards and staff is held vertical
D = L cos q
D = KS cos q + c cos q
V = (KS cos q + C) sin q
RL of staff station :
= HI – V – h
LOS inclined upwards and staff held normal

D = L cos q + h sin q
D = (KS + C) cos q + h sin q
V = L sin q = (KS + C) sin q
RL of staff = HI + V – h cos q
LOS inclined decrease and staff held normal

D = L cos q – h sin q
D = (KS + C) cos q – h sin q
V = L sin q = (KS + C) sin q
RL of staff station = HI – V – h cos q
 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. The diaphragm of a stadia theodolite is normally fitted with two additional

(a) horizontal hair

(b) vertical hair

(c) horizontal and two vertical hairs

(d) none of the above

2. Which of the following represents a correct match?
(i) Movable hair method: The intercept of the staff is kept constant and stadia hair
interval is variable
(ii) Fixed hair method: The intercept on staff is variable and stadia hair intervals is
fixed
(iii) Tangential method: The stadia hair are not used
(a) only (iii) is correct
(b) only (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) all three statements are correct
(d) none is correct
3. The stadia method in tacheometry is used to determine
(a) horizontal angles
(b) vertical angles
(c) horizontal distances
(d) horizontal and vertical distances
4. The purpose of an anallactic lens in a tacheometer is to
(a) increase magnification
(b) reduce effective length of the telescope
(c) to eliminate multiplying constant
(d) make staff intercept proportional to its distance from the tacheometer.
5. The additive constant of a tacheometer is generally
(a) a few cm
(b) 100 cm
(c) about 10 m
(d) a dimensionless constant
6. The multiplying constant of tacheometer is generally about
(a) 200 (b) 100
(c) 50 (d) 1
7. For a tacheometer equipped with an anallactic lens, the additive and multiplying
constants are, respectively
(a) 0  100 (b) 100  0
(c) 0  0 (d) 100  100
8. The intercept of a staff
(a) is maximum, if the staff is held truly normal to the line of sight
(b) is minimum, if the staff is held truly normal to the line of sight
(c) decreases, if the staff is tilted away from normal
(d) decreases, if the staff is tilted towards normal
9. Which of the following methods results in higher accuracy for measuring horizontal
distance on rough grounds:
(a) chaining (b) taping
(c) tacheometry (d) all of the above
 CHAPTER – 8
Trigonometric Levelling
 Introductions

 Trigonometric levelling is an indirect method of levelling in which the relative

elevations of various points are determined from the vertical angles and horizontal
distances measured with a theodolite and a tape respectively.

 The height of a point above the plane of collimation is determined from the
horizontal distance of the point from the instrument station and the vertical angle.
Determination of the level of the top of an object when its base is accessible.

 R.L. of the line of collimation = R.L. of B.M. + s

 where s is the reading on the staff.
h = D tana
R.L. of the top of the chimney = R.L. of B.M. + s + D tana
Determination of the Top Level of a High Object when its base is not Accessible
Case I. When the line of collimation at station A and station B are at the same level.
The following procedure is adopted.

h = D tan a1

dtan 2
D
tan 1  tan 2

dtan 1 tan  2
h
tan 1  tan 2

R.L. of Q = R.L. of P + h
R.L. of Q = R.L. of B.M. + s1 + h
Case II. Instrument axis at B higher than that at A.
Case II. Instrument axis at B higher than that at A.

s  dtan 2
D
tan 1  tan  2

h1 = D tan a1

h1 
 d  scott2 an 1 tan 2
tan 1  tan 2

R.L. of the top Q = R.L. of B.M. + s1 + h1

Case III When the Line of collimation at B is lower than that at A.

D
 d  scott2 
an 2
tan 1  tan 2

h1 
 d  scott2 an 1 tan 2
tan 1  tan 2

R.L. of Q = R.L. of B.M. + s1 + h1

Case IV When the instrument axes have a large difference of levels.
If the line of collimation at stations A and B have a large difference of levels, it is not
possible to measure the staff readings s1 and s2 and to determine s.
 D
 d  scott2 
an 2  d  scott2 an 1 tan 2
h1 
tan 1  tan 2 tan 1  tan 2
Height of the station A above the line of collimation at station B
x=h–r
where, h = height of the target above the axis at B.
h = d tan a
Where, h' = height of instrument at A above the station A.
R.L. of Q = R.L. of line of collimation at A + h1
R.L. of Q = R.L. of line of collimation at B + s + h1
R.L. of Q = (R.L. of B.M. + s2) + (s + h1)
s2 = back sight taken on the staff held at B.M. when the instrument is
levelled at B
s = d tan a – r + h’
Determination of the height of the object when the two instrument stations are not
in the same Vertical Plane
 B
2 D 2
D1 D d
 2 
sin 2 sin 1 sin 1  2  d 1 8 0 º– (  1 +  2 ) Q 1

1 D
dsin 2 1

D1 
sin 1  2  A

dsin 1 R.L. of Q = R.L. of line of collimation at A + h1

D2 
sin 1  2 
R.L. of Q = R.L. of B.M. + s1 + h1
dsin 2 tan 1 where s1 = staff reading on B.M. when the
h1  D1 tan  
sin 1  2  instrument is at A.
 CHAPTER – 9
Photogrammetry
 Introductions
 Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining information about physical objects
through process of recording, measuring and interpreting of photographs of the area.
 Aerial photogrammetry is the branch of photogrammetry in which photographs of the
area are taken with a camera mounted on an aircraft.
 Terrestrial photogrammetry is the branch of the photogrammetry in which
photographs are taken with a camera fixed on or near the ground. It is also called as
Ground Photogrammetry.
 Types of Photographs
• Vertical photographs
• Oblique photographs.
Vertical Photographs
 Vertical photographs are taken when the camera axis is vertical i.e. it coincides with
line of the gravity of camera.
 When the camera axis is tilted slightly from vertical, the resulting photographs is
known as tilted photograph. The tilt is generally less than 1º and rarely exceeds 3º.
This tilt is unintentional.

Oblique aerial photographs

 Oblique aerial photographs are taken with a camera axis A x is

considerably inclined to the vertical. The camera axis is

intentionally kept oblique from the vertical.
(a ) V e r t ic a l P h o t o g r a p h
 F id u cial M a r k s

Focal plane and Fiducial marks

C en tr e of
 The focal plane is a plane in an aerial camera on which all C o l lim a t ion

incident rays from the object are brought to focus.

 Fiducial marks are located in a camera image plane to
F id u cial
provide reference lines for the measurement of image L in es
distances. Generally 4 or 8 Fiducial marks are provided.
(a )

 Lines joining the opposite Fiducial marks are known as the Fiducial lines. These lines
intersect at a point called the centre of collimation.
 Fiducial lines provide a rectangular coordinate system for the measurement of
positions of the images on the photographs.
Photo coordinate Measurements
 The coordinates of the image point a and b are also marked as (x a, ya) and (xb, yb) as
shown in the figure above.
 The distance between points may be calculated using co-ordinate geometry. For
example, the distance ab is given as
y

 x a  xb    y a  yb 
2 2
ab 
xa
a

 The angle aob is given as ya

a
= Ð aob = qa + qb O b x
yb

xb b
y  y 
 aob  tan1  a   tan1  b 
 xa   xb 
Map Versus Aerial Photograph
1. Map is an orthographic projection, where as an aerial photograph is a central
projection, i.e. perspective projection.
2. Map has a single constant scale, whereas it varies from point to point depending
upon their elevations in an aerial photograph. In the case of photograph the terrain
area which has higher elevation is closer to the camera and therefore appears larger
than the terrains area laying at lower elevation.
3. The amount of details on a map are selective where as in an aerial photograph there
is a large number of details.
4. Due to the symbolic representation the clarity of details is more on the maps than
on photo.
Vertical Photograph
 The lens L is at the exposure station.
 The negative is placed at a distance = focal length
(f), behind the rear nodal point (N´) of the camera.
 The object space ABCD is projected as on the
negative of the photograph.
 Point O´ is the principal point of the photograph.
Scale of a Vertical Photograph
photo distance
Scale of photograph (s) 
ground distance

Flat terrain
 The elevation of the lens above the datum is
called the flying height (H). The elevations of A
and B are h above the datum. The datum is
usually taken at Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.).
ab f
Scale of photograph, S  S
AB Hh
Variable elevation terrain
In case of variable elevation terrain scale of a point at higher elevation will be larger than
those at lower elevation
 Datum scale (Sd)
 The datum scale of a vertical photograph is the scale that would be effective over the
entire photograph if all the ground points were projected vertically downwards on
the datum (M.S.L.) before being photographed.

aO LO f
Sd   
A oP LP H
Average scale (Sav)
 The average scale is the scale that would be effective over the entire photograph if
all the ground points were projected vertically downwards or upwards on a plane of
the average elevation of the terrain before being photographed.

The average elevation of the

entire terrain between points C
and D is also indicated by hav.
Therefore, the average scale for
the entire terrain is
f
Sav 
H  hav
Ground Coordinates
 The ground coordinates are measured with
respect to x-axis and y-axis. The origin of
these axes is at the datum principal point P.
 The datum principal point P is a point on
the datum plane exactly beneath the
exposure station.
 Let XA & YA are ground coordinates of any
point A on the ground and xa & ya are its
photograph coordinates.
 The flying height is H and the elevation of
Point A is h above the datum.
Then the ground coordinate and photograph coordinates of point O can be related as
below
 H  hA 
x A  xa  
 f 

 H  hA 
YA  y a  
 f 

 1 
XA  xa   
 SA 

 1 
YA  y a   
 SA 
Relief Displacements in a vertical photograph L

 Relief displacement is the lateral displacement or f

shift in the photographic position of the image of an O

a a
object due to its relief. H a
o
a r
 If the object is above the datum, the relief d r

displacement is outwards. Where as, if the object is A

A 0
(b )

below the datum, the relief displacement is inwards. hA P D atu m

A R
(a )
r f r f
 
R H  hA R H

rhA
fR = r¢H d 
H
d = relief displacement,
h = height of the object above datum,
H = flying height above the datum
r = radial distance of the image of the top of the object from O.
 The relief displacement d increases with an increase in the elevation of the object
above the datum. It decreases with an increase in the flying height above the datum.
Calculation of flying height of a vertical photograph
Case I when focal length and scale of photograph is given
f
H 
S
H¢ = flying height above ground
f = focal length of camera
S = Scale of photographs
Case II If photo co-ordinates, focal length and elevation of point are given then distance
AB on ground.

 XB  X A    YB  YA 
2 2
AB 

2 2
x x  y y 
  b  H  hb   a  H  ha     b  H  hb   a  H  ha  
 ff   ff 

If AB is known then H can be calculated

Photographic Overlaps

 In aerial survey, vertical photographs are taken at the proper interval to give the
desired overlap of photographs in the strip. The photographs are exposed in such a
way that any two consecutive photographs have some common coverage. This
overlapping of the photographs along the flight strip is known as longitudinal overlap,
end lap, forward overlap or simply overlap.

 The side lap generally varies from 25 to 35%, with an average value of 30%.

 Alternate photographs have an end overlap of 20%.

Advantages of overlaps
 The end lap gives a coverage of the entire strip from two view points.
 Because of the end lap, it is possible to discard the end portion and consider only
central portion for construction of mosaics.
 Distortions of the photograph caused by tilt and relief are more pronounced in the
edges of the photograph.
 If side lap is not provided, some gaps of uncovered portion would be left in case
flights are not straight and parallel
Selection of Flying Height
 The flying height of the aircraft above the ground is selected according to the
required contour interval in topographic mapping.
flying height= (C – factor) × contour interval
 The value of C – factor normally varies between 500 to 1500
Required Number of Photographs
Method-1
When ground area ‘A’ is given
A
No. of photographs required = a

a = area covered by one photograph

A = total area to be covered

 1  pl   l  w
a  1  ps  
S S
pl = longitudinal lap/end lap [0.6]

ps = side lap [0.3]

l = length of photograph in the direction of flight

w = width of photograph normal to the direction of flight
S = Scale of photograph

A AS2
N 
a  1  pl   1  ps   lw
Method-2
When length & width of the area on ground to be covered is given.
l
(a)  1  pl    N1  1  L1
S [one extra photograph is taken to cover area at ends]
w
(b)  1  pw   N2  1  W1
S
pl = over lap in the direction of flight [ pl = 0.6]
pw = Overlap in the direction perpendicular to the direction of flight
l = length of photograph in the direction of flight
w = width of photograph
N1 = no. of photograph in the direction of flight
N2 = no. of photograph perpendicular to the direction of flight
L1 = length of ground to be covered
W1 = width of ground to be covered
Total no. of photograph req. = N1N2
 L1  w1 
  1   1
l w
  1  p    1  p  
  
l w
s s
Time Interval Between Exposures
 Exposures of the photographs should be made at the required time interval (T). This
time interval depends upon the ground speed (V) of the aircraft and the ground
length (L) covered between exposures. L
T
V
L = ground length covered by each photograph in the direction of flight(in meter)
V = ground speed of the aircraft (in m/sec)

Crab and Drift:

 Crab of a photograph is the angle formed between the flight line & edges of the
photograph in the direction of flight.
 Crab occurs when the aircraft is not oriented with the flight line
 To correct crab there is an arrangement to rotate the camera about the vertical axis
of the mount.
Drift
 Drift is the lateral shifting of the photograph. The photograph does not stay on the
predetermined flight line due to winds. If the aircraft is set on its course without
considering the wind velocity, drift will occur.
Photomaps and Mosaics
 A mosaic is required if a single photo does not cover the complete area. A mosaic is
also required when the given photograph cannot be enlarged to the required scale.
Mosaics are classified as below.
• Strip mosaic
• Index mosaic
Advantages mosaics over maps
 The cost of the preparation of mosaics is generally less than the maps prepared from
the photographs. The mosaics of a large area can be prepared in a shorter period
than maps.
 The mosaics show all the objects and features in the project area, whereas maps
show only a selected features.
 A layman can easily understand a photomap or a mosaic.
 Disadvantages mosaics over maps:
 Mosaics are not the true planimetric representations of the area as they are
perspective projection of that area.
 Mosaics cannot be used for quantitative analysis. The measured distances and
angles are not the correct values. Therefore photomaps and mosaics can be used
only for qualitative analysis.
 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Assertion (A): A mosaic is large photomap assembled from two or more aerial
photographs of an area.
Reason (R): Photomap and mosaic are true planimetric representations of the area.
Of these statements:
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
2. Which of the following can be used as a map substitute?
(a) Terrestrial photographs
(b) Vertical aerial photographs
(c) Oblique aerial photographs
(d) Vertical aerial photo-mosaics
3. Consider the following statements:
In aerial photogrammetry the ‘filter’ is placed in front of the lens to
1. reduce the effect of atmospheric haze.
2. protect the lens from dust.
3. provide uniform light distribution over the format
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
4. ‘Iso-centre’ is the point

(a) in which the tilted axis of the camera meets the vertical photograph

(b) in which the bisector of the angle of tilt meets the vertical photograph

(c) in air space, the location of the optical centre of the lens of the camera at the
time of exposure

(d) where the perpendicular from the nodal point meets the photograph
5. Match List-I (Variables used in stereophoto-grammetry) with List-II (Values of the
variables given in List-I) and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the lists:
List-I
A. The normal longitudinal overlap along the flight line
B. The normal overlap between the adjacent strips
C. Eye base (average) assumed
D. Tolerable difference in scale of adjoining photographs Codes:
List-II A B C D
1. At least 20% (a) 1 3 2
4
2. Upto 15%
(b) 3 1 2 4
3. 60% or more
(c) 1 3 4
4. 64 mm 2
(d) 3 1 4 2
6. Match List-I (Elements of aerial photographs) with List-II (Explanation of the
elements) and select the correct anser using the codes given below the lists:
List-I Codes:
A. Perspective centre A B C D
B. Plumb point (a) 2 4 1 5
C. Principal point (b) 2 1 3 5
(c) 2 3 1 5
D. Isocentre (d) 4 3 1 2
List-II
1. The point where the perpendicular from the optical centre of the lens meets
the photograph
2. The point where the rays from the objects converge
3. The point where the vertical through the optical centre meets the photograph
4. The point where the horizontal through optical centre meets the photograph
5. The point where the bisector of the angle between vertical and perpendicular
from optical centre meet the photograph
7. Assertion (A): Every point on the aerial photograph which is displaced from its true
orthographic position is called relief displacement.
Reason (R): Relief displacement increases as the distance from the principal point
decreases.
Of these statements:
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correc explanation of A
(b) both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
8. Which one of the following statements about photogrammetric surveying is
correct?
The relief displacement
(a) decreases with increase in flying height
(b) is negative for a point above datum
(c) decreases as the distance of the object from the principal point increases
(d) of the point is not affected by the tilt of the photograph
9. Given that
f = focal length of camera
H = height of exposure station above MSL
h = height of ground above MSL
The scale of vertical photograph is given by
(a) Sh = f/H
(b) Sh = f/(H – h)
(c) Sh = H/(f – h)
(d) Sh = f/(H + h)
10. Match List-I (Name) with List-II (Explanation) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the lists: Codes:
List-I A B C D
A. Principal point (a) 4 3 2
B. Isocentre 1
C. Crab (b) 4 3 1
D. Drift 2
List-II (c) 3 4 1 2
1. The angle formed between the flight (d) 3line and
4 the2 edge
1 of photograph in the
direction of flight
2. Failure of the aeroplane to stay on the predetermined flight line
3. The point where a perpendicular dropped from the front nodal point strikes
the photograph
4. The point at which the bisector of the angle of tilt meets the photographer
 CHAPTER – 10
Theory of Errors
 Introductions
 Measurements of angles and distances are made in various surveying operations.
 The errors occur due to imperfection in instruments, due to human limitations, due
to environmental changes or due to carelessness.
Types of Errors
 Gross errors or mistakes
 Systematic or cumulative errors
 Accidental or random errors.
Gross Errors (Mistakes)
 Mistakes occur due to inexperience or carelessness of the surveyor
Systematic Errors
 The systematic errors always follow some pattern which may be some
mathematical or physical law.
 The systematic errors are of same magnitude and nature in the identical conditions.
 The systematic errors can be computed and suitable corrections applied.
 Surveying instruments should be so designed and used that, systematic errors are
automatically eliminated.
 Systematic errors are also called as cumulative errors.
Accidental (or Random) Errors
 Accidental errors occur due to lack of perfection in human eye.
 The accidental errors tend to cancel out each other when a large number of such
measurements are made because there is as much chance of their being positive as
being negative.
 The accidental errors obey the law of chance.
 These can be understood and eliminated with the help of mathematical theory of
probability.
 The theory of errors, therefore, deals only with the accidental errors.
 It is presumed that all mistakes and systematic errors have been eliminated from the
measured values, and only random error are to be eliminated.
Laws of Accidental Error
 Error when plotted against the probability of its occurrence, we get normal
probability distribution curve.
Error = Measured Value – True Value
Error = Residual = (Measured Value – Most Probable Value)

P r ob a b ilit y (y )

–  + 
(– ) e r r o r (+ ) e r r o r
The following points may be noted in the normal probability curves:

 The positive and negative errors are equal in size and frequency, as the curve is
symmetrical.
 The small errors are more frequent than large errors.
 A very large errors seldom occurs.
True value of a quantity
 The value of a quantity which is free from all the errors is known as the true value of
that quantity. As it is impossible to eliminate all the errors completely from a
measured quantity, the true value cannot be found. Therefore it is a hypothetical
quantity.
Most probable value (MPV)
 The most probable value of a quantity is a value which has more chance of being true
value than any other value.
 The most probable value of a quantity can be found out if that quantity is measured a
number of times.
True Error
 True error = observed value – true value
Residual error
 Residual error = observed value – most probable value
Indices of Precision for Observations of Equal Weight
Standard Deviation

v 2
Standard deviation  
n1
residual variation(v) = measured value – most probable value
n = number of observation made
The standard deviation establishes the limits of the error bound within which 68.3% of the
values of the set should lie.
Variance
v 2
V V  2
n1
Variance is also used as a measure of dispersion or spread.
Standard Error of the Mean
v 2
m  
n n  1


m  
n

sm = standard error of the mean,

n = no. of observations made
Standard error of the single observation

v 2
1 
n1
Most probable Error
 The most probable error is defined as the error for which there are 50% chances that
the true error will be less than the probable error and 50% chances that the true error
will be more than the probable error.

v2
Most probable error   0.6745
n1
e   0.6745

 Most probable error of the mean

 The most probable error of the mean is 0.6745 times the standard error of the mean.
Thus
v 2
 Probable error of the mean em = 0.6745
n n  1
Maximum error
 Generally, 99.9% error (E99.9) is taken as the maximum error in surveying.
 Maximum error =  3.29
 Different percentage error

(a) 90% error (E90) = ± 1.645s

(b) 95% error (E95)= ± 1.96s

(c) 95.5% error (E95.5) = ± 2.0s

(d) 99.7% error (E99.7) = ± 3.0s

Definition of Weight
 The weight of a quantity is measure of its relative trust worthiness of the set of
observations. In other words weight indicates the relative precision of a quantity
within a set of observations. The greater the precision of an observation, the greater
will be its weight.
 The weights are always expressed in numbers. The greater number indicates higher
precision and trust in compression to the lower number.
Allocation of Weights
 The weights are assigned depending upon the degree of precision. The weights are
taken inversely proportional to the variance or square of standard errors (or probable
errors).
W1 V2

W2 V1
 The weights of the quantities measured in similar conditions are assigned in direct
proportion to the number of times (n) the quantity measured.

W1 n1

W2 n2

 The weights are sometimes allocated by personal judgment depending on the field
prevailing and environmental conditions.
 The weight of a level line is taken as inversely proportional to the length (L) of the
route.
W1 L2

W2 L1
Laws of Weights

1. The weight of the arithmetic mean of a number of observations of unit weight is equal
to the number of observations.

2. The weight of the weighted arithmetic mean is equal to the sum of the individual
weights.

3. The weight of algebraic sum of two or more quantities is equal to the reciprocal of the
sum of reciprocals of their individual weights.

4. If a quantity of a given weight is multiplied by a factor, the weight of the result is

obtained by dividing its given weight by the square of that factor.
5. If a quantity of a given weight is divided by a factor, the weight of the result is
obtained by multiplying its given weight by the square of that factor.

6. If an equation is multiplied by its own weight, the weight of the resulting equation is
equal to the reciprocal of the weight of that equation.

7. The weight of an equation remains unchanged if all the signs of the equations are
changed.

8. The weight of an equation remains unchanged if the equation is added to or subtract

from a constant.
Indices of Precision for Observations of Different Weights
Standard deviation of weighted observations

  wv2 
w  
 n  1
Standard error of the mean of the weighted observations

w
(1 )w  
 w  1 2

Standard error of the signal observations of weight wi

w
(1 )w 
 wi 
12
Most Probable error of the signal observations of weight wi

Ew  0.6745  1  w

  wv2 
Ew  0.6745
wi  n  1 

Most probable error of the mean (Em)w

(Em )w  0.6745  m  w

  wv2 
(Em )w  0.6745
 n  1 w
 Theory of Least Squares
 According to the theory of least squares, if the measurements are of equal weight, the
most probable value is that value which makes the sum of the squares of the residual
(v) to a minimum value.
Sv2 = minimum
 If the measurements are of unequal weights, the most probable value is that value
which makes the sum of the products of the weight (w) and the squares of the
residuals to a minimum value. Thus
 Sw(v2) = minimum
 The least square adjustment can be done by either of the following two methods:
 Normal equations method
 Method of correlates or condition equations method.
 Most Probable values of Directly Observed Quantities
 In observations of equal weight, the most probable values of the observed quantities
can be obtained by the theory of least squares, by the analysis of method of least
square.
 The most probable value of an observed quantity is equal to the arithmetic mean of
the observed values of the quantity.
M1 + M2 + M3 + .... Mn
M where M = most probable value
n
 When the observations are not of the same weight, the above equation is modified as
explained below.
w M  w2M2  ......  wnMn
M 1 1
w1  w2  .....  wn
 The most probable value of the observed quantity = The weighted arithmetic mean
of the observed values.
Salient Points :
 The probable error (or standard error) of the levels is directly proportional the square
root of the length.
e L

 Sometimes, the probable error (or standard error) is also taken proportional to the
square root of the number (N) of set ups.
e N
 The weight of levels in any level line is inversely proportional to the length of the line.
Thus 1
w
L
 By combining the above two rules, we get the following rule.
1
w 2
e
 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Residual error of a measurement is the difference
(a) true and observed value
(b) most probable and observed value
(c) true and most probable value
(d) none
2. If an equation is subtracted from a constant K, the weight of the resulting equation will
be
(a) weight of the equation divided by K
(b) weight of the equation multiplied by K
(c) weight of the equation multiplied by K2
(d) unchanged
3. In the case of line of levels, the weight varies
(a) directly as the length of the route
(b) inversely as the length of the route
(c) directly as square root of the length
(d) inversely as square root of the length of the route
4. Error arising from carelessness of the observer are known as
(a) compensating errors
(b) systematic errors
(c) mistakes
(d) descrepancy
5. The rules to be observed while assigning weights to the observations made are:
1. The weight of an angle varies directly as the number of observations made on
an angle
2. For an angle repeated for a great number of times, the weight is inversely
proportional to the square of the probable error
3. For a line of levels, the weight varies inversely as the length of the route
Of the above rules, the correct ones are:
(a) only 1 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 1, 2 and 3(d) 2 and 3
6. For the solution of normal equations, which of the following is not a method?
(a) Direct method
(b) Method of differences
(c) Method of correlates
(d) Least square method
7. Theory of probability is applied to
(a) accidental errors only
(b) cumulative errors only
(c) both accidental and cumulative
(d) none of the above
8. The error due to bad ranging is
(a) cumulative (+ve)
(b) cumulative (–ve)
(c) compensating
(d) cumulative (+ve or –ve)
9. The difference between the most probable value of a quantiy and its observed value
is
(a) true error
(b) weighted observation
(c) conditional error
(d) residual error
10. The correction for sag is
(a) always additive
(b) always subtractive
(c) always zero
(d) sometimes additive and sometimes subtractive
11. Consider the following statements associated with the laws of weights in the theory
of errors:
1. If an equation is multiplied by its own weight, then the weight of the resulting
equation is equal to the reciprocal of the weight of that equation
2. The weight of the algebraic sum of two or more quantities is equal to the
reciprocal of the sum of the individual weights.
3. If the quantity of a given weight is multiplied by a factor, then the weight of the
result is obtained by dividing its given weight by the square root of that factor.
4. If the quantity of a given weight is divided by a factor, then the weight of the
result is obtained by multiplying its given weight by the square of that factor.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3
CHAPTER – 11
Curve
 Introductions
Curves definition :
 Curves are defined as arcs with some finite radius, provided between intersecting
straights to gradually negotiates a change a change in direction
 This change in direction of straight may be in a horizontal at a vertical plane.
 Resulting with the provision of a horizontal or a vertical curve respectively
Horizontal curves :
They are classified as :
(i) Simple circular curves
(ii) Compound curves
(iii) Reverse curves
(iv) Transition curves
Simple Circular curve :
 Its consist of arc of a circle
 Its tangential to 2 station lines of the route.
Compound curve :
 Its consists of 2 circular arcs with their centre of curvature on the some side of
common tangent
Reverse curve and S curves and serpentine curve
 When 2 simple circular curves of equal / different radius having opposite direction of
curvature are joined together the resultant curve is called as reverse curve e.g..
Change of track of railway line
 Reverse curves are provided between 2 parallel straight lines or when angle between
them is very small.
 These are common in railway yards but unsuitable for highways
Transition curve:
Its usually introduced between a straight line and a simple circular curve
Radius of a transition curve varies from some finite value to infinite value or vice verse.
Simple circular curve : (Right hand simple circular curve)
q = angle of intersection
D = deflection angle or central angle
Elements of simple circular curve :

2R
(i) Length of curve (l) L  R  
360
(ii) (T) tangent length = R tan (D/2)
(iii) Chainages of tangent points:
The chainage of V is known to us generally
Chainage of T1 = chainage of PI(V) – T
Chainage of T2 = chain age of T1 + l
Length of long chord (L)= 2R sin D/2
Apex distance (External distance : (E)
E = R sec D/2 – R

  
E  R  sec  1 
 2 

Mid ordinal : M= R(1 – cos D/2)

Designation of curve :
Curve can be designated by radius (R) or degree (D) of the curve
Degree of a curve is angle subtended by an arc or a chord of fixed length at the centre
 (a) Arc: 20 m / 30 m (b) Chord: 20 m / 30 m
(followed in highways) (followed in Railway)

Relationship between radius and degree of curve :

(i) 30 m arc:
1718.9 1719
D 
R R
(ii) 20 m arc
180  20 1145.92 1146
D  
R R R
 15 15
(b) Chort definition 30 m chord :


sin  
15 R
D/2
2 R
10 10

D/2
(c) For small angles sin q = tan q = q

Note : As the degree of curve is inversely proportional to the radius of curve sharp curves
have a large degree of curve, whereas flat curves have a small degree of curve
Setting out of a simple circular curve :
 Setting out of a curve is a process of locating various points along the lengths of curve
at equal and convenient distances.
 Distance between 2 successive points is called as peg interval.
 As its difficult to establish point along the arc, its done along the chord.
 Generally the peg interval is of 20 or 30 m but for sharp curves, it may be further
reduced.
 Let the chainage of point of curve T1 be m + n (i.e. m chains and n links)
 The first point of the curve will be at (m + 1) chains
 There fore to make 1st point on curve as fall station the first chord will be sub chord.
 All other chords except the last chord will be full chords.
 Last chord can be a full chord / a sub chord depending on the length of curve and
chainage of T2
Methods of setting out : They are classified as :
(i) Linear method : Only chain or tape is used
(ii) Angular method : Theodolite with or without chain.
Methods

Linear Angular
(i) Offset from long chord (i)Rankine method
(ii) offset from tangent (ii) 2 theodalite method
(iii) Radial offsets from tangent (iii) Tacheometric method
(iv) Successive bisection of arc
(v) Offset from chord produced
Linear Methods :
(i) Offset from long chord :

X2
OX  O 
2R

(ii) Perpendicular Offset from tangents :

X2
OX 
2R
(iii) Radial offset from tangent :

X2
OX 
2R

Note : To have radial offset we must have info about centre of the curve
Successive bisection of arc :

(iv) Successive bisection of Arc:

CD = R(1 – cos D/2)
EF = R{1 – cos D/4}
GH = R[1 – cos D/8]
These 4 methods were not exact and are approximate
(V) Offset from chord produced
 It’s the best method for setting out long curve by linear method when theodolite is
not available b’
C C 
O2  C2  1  2 
 2R 2R 
Angular method :
 Angular methods are preferred over linear methods as they are more accurate and
less time consuming
Rankin method / deflection method / one theodolite method/ tangential angle method

C1
1 
2R

C1
1  1718.9 (In minutes)
R

C2
2 
2R
Theodolite method :
 This method is most useful when the ground is rough undulating and not suitable for
linear measurement
 In this method 2 theodolites are used and linear measurements are completely
eliminated.
 Its based on the principle that angle between the tangent and chord is equal to angle
subtended by the chord in the opposite segment.

d1
C T2
T1 d1
D
R R

O
Transition curves :
 Its a curve of varying radius introduced between a station line and a circular curve.
 Its provides a gradual change from a station line to a circular curve and again from
circular curve to the station line.
Note : A transition curve is also provided between 2 branches of a compound curve or a
reverse curve such that change in curvature is gradual.
Basic criteria for design of transition curve :
 It should be tangential to straight line and also meet the circular curve tangentially at
the functions.
 Its curvature should be 0 (R = ¥) at one end where it meets the straight line, and its
curvature should be (1/R) at its functions with the circular curve.
 Rate of change of curvature along the transition curve should be equal to rate of
change of super elevation
 Length of transition curve should be such that full Super elevation is achieved at the
junction with the circular curve
Super elevation : It’s the vertical distance by which outer end is raised w.r.t the inner edge

P c
os 
(C e n t P
ou ter r ifu g a 
l fo r ce
)
en d
 W s in 
su p er
e

elev a tion F f fr ict io n fo r ce

 In n er
w (w e i g h t ) en d

GP GV2
e 
w RG
Max centrifugal ratio :
 P/w is centrifugal ratio
 To avoid in continence to passengers, the value of max centrifugal ratio is specified as

V2 1 1
 (highways) , (Railway)
Rg 4 8

Rg Rg
 For roads V V
4 8

 The above equation is used to determine maximum velocity for a given radius or
minimum radius for a given velocity.
Effect of friction on e :
P cos a = w sin a + Ff

V2 tan   
 hence for designpurpose
Rg 1   tan 

V2
  tanx 
Rg
Direction of Transition Curve equation :

mv2 1
Pe , P , P
r r
Hence lr = constant
lr = K , equation of ideal transition curve
 A curve of variable radius of required length is inserted between straight road and a
circular curve such that centripetal force increase gradually and uniformly along the
length of transition curve so that lateral shock and discomfort is reduced.

 Equation lr = K, represent a curve called as clothoid, spiral curve, Euler spiral and Ideal
transition curve
Length of transition curve :
Length of transition curve may be taken as :
(a) Some arbitrary value from past experience
(b) Such that super elevation is applied at a uniform rate along the curve say 0.1%.
Let 1/n is the rate at which super elevation is provided and e is the total super
elevation to be provided
e
L  ne
1/n
(c) Such that rate of change of radial acceleration is equal to certain chosen value
If a = rate of change of radial acceleration V3
l
R

Note : A rate of change of radial acceleration of 1/3 (m/s2/s) is

a comfort limit above which vehicle will be thrown side ways.
Instant Equation of Ideal Transition Curve

l2

2lr

In an ideal transition Curve fs = spiral angle

a = fs/3 a = polar angle

 s
Cubic spiral :

y
l3 y
6RL
l y
Cubic parabola :

y
x3 y
6RL
l y

a x
 Cubic spiral curve resembles more closely to the ideal transition curve than in
comparison to cubic parabola curve.
 Setting out of cubic parabola is more case than cubic spiral.
 Cubic parabola is more commonly used.
 But with the invention of electronic equipments like total station nowadays any curve
can be plotted hence cubic parabola got obsolete.
 Bernoulli's lemniscates :

 This curve is used when deflection angle is large. n 
6
 This curve is symmetrical it can be used when curve is transitional throughout with
out a circular curve in between them.
 When the curve is transitional throughout polar deflection angle an = 1/6 * (deflection
angle (D)
 As the curve is symmetrical and transitional throughout the can increase super
elevation up to apex and then gradually decrease it
 Shape of Bernoulli’s lemniscates curve is similar to actual path traced by the vehicle
when turning freely on a curve.
 This curve is also called as autogenously curve.
 Vertical curve : Vertical curve is used to connect two different gradient lines of
highways and railways vertical curve can be parabolic or circular parabolic curve is
parabolic more due to : (Reasons)
(i) In flatter at top and provides longer sight distance
(ii) Rate of change of gradient is constant
(iii) Its simple in laying out.
 Vertical Curves
Sag / valley curve Summit curve
(i) When down grad is followed by up (i) Up grad is followed by a down grad
gradient

(ii) When a steeper down grad is (ii) When a steeper up grad is followed by
followed by a milder down grad. a milder up grad.

(iii) Milder up grad followed by a steep up (iii) When a milder down grade is
grad followed by a steeper down grad.
Total change of grad :
Total change of grad is the algebraic difference of a grades
Length of vertical curve: Length of vertical curve is determined by permissible rate of
change of gradient

Total change in gradient

h
Permissible rate of change of gradient
 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists: (adopting standard notations)
List-I List - II Codes:
NS2 A B C D
A. Cubic parabola equation 1. 4.4 (a) 1 2 3 4
L2 (b) 3 4 1 2
B. Shifting transition curve 2. 24R
(c) 1 5 2 4
NS2
C. Valley curve 3. (d) 4 2 3 1
1.50  0.035S
D. Summit curve 4. x2
6RL
v2
5.
gR
2. Which one of the following linear methods of setting out a circular curve needs
reference of the centre of the curve?
(a) Offset from chord produced
(b) Radial offset
(c) Perpendicular offset
(d) Successive bisection of arcs
3. Assertion (A): The super-elevation increases along the length of transition curve.
Reason (R): The radius of transition curve decreases along the length of the curve.
Of these statements:
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
4. The radius of curvature of an ideal transition curve should be
(a) inversely proportional to its length from the beginning
(b) directly proportional to its length from the beginning
(c) proportional to the speed of the vehicle
(d) proportional to the super elevation
5. Assertion (A): The rate of increase of curvature along the transition curve should be
equal to the rate of increase of super elevation.
Reason (R): The length of the transition curve should be fixed in such a manner that
full super elevation is achieved at the junction with the circular curve.
Of these statements:
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
6. Which of the following elements of a simple curve are correctly matched?

1. Tangent length ...... R tan 2

2. Apex distance ...... 2R sin
2

3. Length of long chord ...... 2R cosec 2

4. Mid-ordinate ...... R versine 2
(R is the radius and D is the deflection angle)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
(c) 1 and 2 (d) 1 and 4
7. Match List-I (Element of a simple circular curve) with List-II (Definitions) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I Codes:
A. Vertex A B C D
B. Long chord (a) 4 2 5 3
C. Tangent distance (b) 3 2 4 5
D. External distance (c) 2 1 4 5
List-II (d) 2 1 5 3
1. The line joining the point of curvature and point of tangency
2. Back tangent and forward tangent when extended intersect at this point
3. Distance between the mid-point of long chord and mid-point of the curve
4. Distance between point of tangency and the point of intersection
5. Distance between point of intersection and middle point of the curve
8. Consider the following basic criteria of a transition curve:
1. Its curvature should be equal to the radius of the circular curve at its junction
with the straight line.
2. The rate of increase of curvature along the transition curve should be equal to
the rate of increase of super elevation.
3. It should be tangential to the straight line and meet the circular curve with the
same radius as that of the circular curve.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 2 alone (b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
9. Assertion (A): The degree of the curve is directly proportional to the radius of the
curve.
Reason(R): A sharp curve has a large degree of curve and a flat curve has a small
degree of curve.
Of these statements
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
10. Setting out a simple curve by the two- theodolite method does not require
(a) angular measurements
(b) linear measurements
(c) both angular and linear measurements
(d) none of the above
11. Different grades are jointed together by a
(a) compound curve
(b) transition curve
(c) reverse curve
(d) vertical curve
12. The properties of an autogenous curve for an automobile are given by
(a) true spiral
(b) cubic parabola
(c) Bernoulli’s lemniscate
(d) clothoid spiral
13. An ideal transition curve is a
(a) cubic parabola
(b) cubic spiral
(c) parabola
(d) true spiral
14. Which one of the following is carried out by two theodolite method?
(a) Circular curve ranging
(b) Tacheometric survey
(c) Geodetic survey
(d) Astronomical survey
 CHAPTER – 13
Measurement of Area
& Volume
 Introductions
Methods of measurement of area :

(i) By field measurement (ii) By plan measurement

 If the shape of (tract) is enclosed by straight boundaries it can be subdivided into

simple geometrical shapes, such as triangle, trapezoids, rectangle etc
 The area of these figure can be can be using appropriate formula.
 But if boundaries are irregular then approximate methods are used.
 Area on a plan or a map can be calculated based on the measurement scaled from
plan/map or by use of a planimeter.
Note : Area of irregular shape is calculated with the help of plain meter.
Area by approx methods :
(i) Mid ordinate method :

h1  h2  h3  ............  hn  1(L)
A
(n  1)

In this method offsets h1, h2, h3 ……….. Hn–1 are measured at middle point of each division
(ii) Average ordinate method :

O1  O2  ..........  On (L)
A
n
Trapezoidal rule :
d
A  O1  2(O2  O3      On1 )  On 
2
This method is more accurate than above 2 method
End ordinates are considered even if they are zero
Simpson’s 1/3rd rule :
 If the irregular boundaries are curved in nature Simpson's 1/3 rd rule is preferred
over trapezoidal rule to calculated area of tract.
 This rule assumes that short length of boundaries between 2 adjacent boundaries
between two adjacent boundaries is parabolic arc

A   O1  On  4(O2  O4  O5    On2 )  2(O3  O4  O5    On1 )
3
Note : Simpson's 1/3rd rule is applicable only when there are add no. of offsets.
If there are even number of offsets then also Simpson's rule is applicable
In such a case, total area is divided into 2 parts
(i) A1 = Area till the 2nd last segment is calculated from Simpson's 1/3rd rule
(ii) A2 = Area of last segment from trapezoidal rule
(iii) Total area (A) = A1 + A2

Note : If in the question its mentioned that area has to be calculated by Simpson's rule
only and offsets are even in number then in this case any average offset is taken
between 2 adjacent offsets and hence number of offsets become odd in number.
Measurement of volumes :
Computation of volumes of various quantities from the measurement done in the field is
required in planning of many engineering works eg: Reservoirs and dams
For volume of earth work :
Roads, canals, sewer projects etc.
End area method : An
A4

(A  An ) A3
Volume  d*  1 
 A2  A 3  ............  An1 
 2  A2

A1
Prismoidal rule : (s)

d
V   A1  An  4  A 2  A 4  A 6  ......  2 A 3  A 5  A 7  ..... 
3

Note : Its necessary to have odd number of sections. In case of even number of cross
sections, end strip is treated separately and the volume of remaining strips is
calculated by prismoidal rule and volume of last strip can be calculated by end area
method or prismoidal rule.
 In case only prismoidal rule has to be applied, area half way between the sections is
calculated by averaging the dimensions of end sections and not by averaging the
areas.
 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which one of the following methods estimates best the area of an irregular and
curved boundary?
(a) Trapezoidal method
(b) Simpson’s method
(c) Average ordinate method
(d) Mid-ordinate method
2. Which one of the following methods of computing area assumes that the short
lengths of the boundary between the ordinates are parabolic arcs?
(a) Average ordinate rule (b) Middle ordinate rule
(c) Simpson’s rule (d) Trapezoidal rule
3. The method of computing areas by subdividing a plot into triangles is suitable for
(a) work of small nature
(b) work of big nature
(c) road work
(d) canal work
4. The method suitable for computing the area when the boundary lines departs
considerably from a straight line is
(a) Mid-ordinate rule
(b) Average ordinate rule
(c) Trapezoidal rule
(d) Simpson’s rule
5. The area of an irregular plotted figure can be accurately obtained with the help
of a
(a) pentagraph (b) parallax bar
(c) planimeter (d) any of the above
6. Simpson’s rule for calculating area is applicable only when the ordinates are
(a) odd (b) even
(c) either (a) or (b) (d) none
7. Volume of earthwork can be calculated by
(a) Mid-ordinates (b) Average ordinates
(c) Prismoidal rule (d) Hund’s rule
CHAPTER – 14
Plane Table
 Introduction
 The main feature of plane tabling is that the topographic features to be mapped are in
full view. Hence no chance of missing of any important detail.
Advantages
 The sighting and plotting are done simultaneously. Therefore there is no risk of
omitting necessary details.
 The error and mistakes in plotting can be checked by drawing the check lines.
 It is most rapid and useful for filling in details.
 It is less costly in comparison to theodolite survey.
 It is very advantageous in areas, where compass survey is not reliable e.g. area
effected by magnetic fields.
Disadvantages

 It is not suitable for, work in a wet climate and in a densely wooded country.

 The absence of (field notes) causes inconvenience

 Plane table is heavy and awkward to carry and the accessories are likely to be lost.

 It does not give very accurate results.

Accessories used in Plane Table Surveying
(1) Plane table board
(2) Tripod
(3) Alidade
(4) Trough compass
(5) Spirit level
(6) Plumbing fork
(7) Drawing sheet
Alidade
 An alidade is a straight-edge ruler having some sighting device. It is used for sighting
the objects and drawing the lines.
Trough Compass
 Generally it is 15 cm long and is provided to plot the magnetic meridian (N – S
direction) to facilitate orientation of the plane table in the magnetic meridian
Plumbing Fork
 A plumbing fork is a U-shaped piece of metal frame. It is
used for the centering of the plane table over the station.
Temporary Adjustments
 Surface of the Board should be Perpendicular to the Vertical Axis of the Instrument
 The Fiducial Edge of the Alidade should be a Straight Line
 The Two Vanes should be Perpendicular to the Base of Alidade
Setting up the Plane Table
Centering
 Operation of bringing the plotted station point exactly over the ground station.
Leveling
 It is the operation of bringing the plane table in a horizontal plane.
Orientation
 It is the operation of keeping the plane table parallel to the position it occupied at the
first station.
Methods of Plane Table Orientation
By Trough Compass
 A trough compass is used to orient the plane table every time it occupies a new
position
 This method of orientation and cannot be employed at stations where local attraction
is suspected.
By Back Sighting
 This is the most accurate method of
orientation.
 In this method plane table is set on a new
station and the alidade is placed against the
line joining the new station with the
preceding station and the table is rotated
until the line of sight bisects the previous
station. Traversing with a plane table
Resection
Methods of Plane Table Surveying
Radiation
 In this method the instrument is setup at a station and rays are drawn to various
stations which are to be plotted.
 The distances are cut to a suitable scale after actual measurements.
Traversing
 This method is similar to compass or theodolite traversing.
 The table is set at each of the stations in succession.

 Intersection
 In this method two stations are selected
such that all the other stations to be
plotted are visible from these.
 A line joining these two stations is called
base line.
 Rays are drawn from these stations to the station to be plotted.
 The intersection of the rays from these two stations gives the position of the
station to be plotted on the drawing sheet.
Resection
C C
 This method of orientation is employed when the plane c
table occupies a position not yet plotted on the drawing a b
sheet.
 Resection can be defined as the process of locating the
instrument station occupied by the plane table by
drawing rays from the stations whose positions are
A a b B
already plotted on the drawing sheet.
R esection b y b a ck r a y

Orientation by Two Points

 The two-point problem consists of locating the position of a plane table station on the
drawing sheet by observation of two well defined points, whose positions have
already been plotted on plan.
Resection After Orientation by Three Points
 Three point problem can be solved by several methods.
1. Graphical method 2. Trial and Error method
3. Mechanical method 4. Analytical method
5. Geometrical - construction method.
Graphical Method
 The most simple and the best graphical method to solve the three-point problem one
is the Bessel’s solution
 Trial-and-Error Method or Lehmann’s Method
 This method is very commonly used in field measurements as it gives very accurate
results.
Lehmann’s Rule

Rule 1. The point p is on the same side of all the three resection lines a¢a, b¢b and c
¢c.
Rule 2. The distance of p from a p1
resection
p2 p3line is proportional to the length of that line.
Hence,  
pa pb pc
 B
Mechanical Method for Three-Point Problem C
A

 The three-point problem can be solved by a

mechanical method using a tracing paper. P 1

T r a cin g P a p er
(a )

a b c

P la n
(b )
 OBJECTIVE QUESTION

1. It is required to produce a small-scale map of an area in magnetic zone by directly

plotting and checking the work in the field itself. Which one of the following surveys
will be most appropriate for purpose?
(a) Chain (b) Theodolite
(c) Plane Table (d) Compass
2. For locating an inaccessible point with the help of only a Plane table, one should use
(a) traversing (b) resection
(c) radiation (d) intersection
3. The method of plane tabling commonly used for establishing the instrument station
is the method of
(a) radiation (b) intersection
(c) resection (d) traversing
4. Pick out the correct statement
(a) U-frame is used for orienting the plane table
(b) The drawing sheet used in plotting a plane table survey needs no special care
in fixing on the board.
(c) An alidade is also called a sight rule.
(d) A simple alidade and Indian pattern clinometer serve the same purpose.
5. If the plotted position of an instrument station is not known, the most accurate
orientation of the plane table can be achieved by
(a) a trough compass
(b) back sighting
(c) observations of two well-defined points
(d) observations of three well-defined points
6. It is necessary to go to one of the plotted stations in the method of resection
(a) by trough compass
(b) by a back ray
(c) by both (a) and (b)
(d) by three points
7. Assertion (A): The solution of a three-point problem in plane-table surveying is
aided by Lehmann’s rules.
Reason (R): The application of Lehmann’s rules reduces the triangle of error and is a
controlled trial-and-error technique.
Ans. (a)
8. Consider the following statements:
Assertion (A): In plane table photogrammetry, the areas to be mapped are taken
from either end of a base line.
Reason (R): The position of the detail point with reference to the base line is
obtained by intersection of rays drawn to it from each end of the base.
Of these statements
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
9. The fix of a plane table from three known points is good if
(a) the middle station is the nearest
(b) the middle station is farther than the other two stations
(c) either of the extreme stations is the nearest
(d) the middle station is close to the great circle
10. Assertion (A): If the plane table station P lies on the great circle passing through the
stations A, B and C, then the position of point ‘p’ can be determined by the three-
point problem.
Reason (R): The problem becomes indeterminate as the three rays will intersect at
one point irrespective of the orientation of the plane table.
Ans. (a)
11. Consider the following statements pertaining to plane table survey:
1. Two-point problem is solved by mechanical method.
2. Three-point problem is solved by Bessel’s method.
3. In two point problem, auxiliary station is required.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
12. Which one of the following instruments is used in plane table surveying for the
measurements of horizontal and vertical distances directly?
(a) Plain alidade (b) Telescopic alidade
(c) Tacheometer (d) Clinometer
CHAPTER – 15
Contouring
 Introductions
 Contour is an imaginary line joining the points of equal elevations on earth’s
surface
 A contour line may also be definition as intersection of a level surface with the
surface of earth
 When the contours are under water, they are called as submarine or Fathoms or
bathymetric curves
 Generally contours are not visible on the ground in case of shore lines
 Contour interval : Vertical distance between consecutives contours is termed as
contour intervals
 Its desirable to have constant contour interval through out the map
 Although in special cases a variable contour interval may also be provided
Salient points regarding the contour interval :
 For small scale, the contour interval is large and vice-versa.
 For detailed designs contour interval is kept small.
 For flat ground large contour interval and for steep ground small contour interval
 Lesser the time available, more is the contour interval.
 Higher the cost involved, lower the contour interval
Characteristics of contour :
 All points on contour line have same elevation.
 A zero m contour represents coast line.
 Two contour lines can never intersect except in case of overhanging cliff or a cave
penetrating hill side.
 A contour line is closed curve. They may ether close on the map or outside the map
 Watershed line or ridge line or valley line are perpendicular to contour lines
 Direction of steepest slope is along the shortest distance between the 2 contours
 A set of closed contours with larger figures inside and decrease outside indicated a
hill whereas, If decrease inside increase out side represents a case of depression or
lake

80 30 100
100 90 80

HILL Valley
 2 contour lines having same elevation cannot unite and continue as 1 line
 Equally spaced contours represent a uniform slope and contours that are well apart
represent a gentle slope
 Irregular contours represent uneven ground surface.
 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the lists:
Codes:
List-I
A B C D
A. Vertical cliff
(a) 4 3 1 2
B. Steep slope
(b) 1 3 4 2
C. Hill
(c) 1 2 4 3
D. Overhanging cliff (d) 4 2 1 3
List-II
1. Contour lines of different elevations unite to form one line
2. Contour lines of different elevations cross one another
3. Contour lines are closely spaced
4. Closed contour lines with higher values inside
2. Assertion (A): A series of closed contours indicate either a valley or a hill without
any outlet, when their elevations, respectively, increase or decrease towards the
centre.
Reason (R): Contour lines of different elevations can unite to form one line only at a
vertical cliff.
Of these statements:
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
3. What is the angle of intersection of a contour and a ridge line?
(a) 30° (b) 0°
(c) 180° (d) 90°
4. Consider the following statements about the characteristics of contours:
1. Closed contour lines with higher values inside show a lake.
2. Contour is an imaginary line joining points of equal elevations.
3. Closely spaced contours indicate steep slope.
4. Contour lines can cross each other in case an overhanging cliff.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 2, 3 and 4(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
5. Altimetry may be depicted most accurately by
(a) hachures
(b) relief shading
(c) layer tinting
(d) contour lines
6. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the lists:
List-I
A. Equally spaced contour lines
B. Contours are always perpendicular to
C. Contours increase in elevation from
inside to outside
Codes:
List-II
A B C
1. Steepest slope
2. A hill (a) 1 2 4
3. A saddle (b) 1 3 4
4. A depression (c) 5 3 2
5. Uniform slope (d) 5 1 4
7. Contour interval on a map sheet denotes
(a) vertical distance of contour lines above the datum plane
(b) vertical distance between two successive contour lines
(c) slope distance between two successive contour lines
(d) horizontal distance between two successive contour lines
8. Which of the following characteristic features may be used while plotting a contour
plan?
1. Two contour lines having the same elevation cannot unite and continue as one
line.
2. Contour lines close together indicate a gentle slope.
3. Contour lines cross a valley line at right angles.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3(b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
9. Assertion (A): Except in the case of an over-hanging cliff, two contour lines cannot
merge or intersect at a point on the map.
Reason (R): Intersection of two contour lines means one point on the surface of the
earth will have two different elevations. This is not possible.
Ans. (d)
 CHAPTER – 16
Minor Instrument
 Introduction
Hand Level
 It is used for approximate determination of elevations in reconnaissance, preliminary
surveying, for locating contours on the ground, and for taking short cross-sections in
profile leveling.
Abney Level
 An Abney level is an improved version of the hand level. It can be used as a hand level
for leveling, and as a Clinometer for measuring slopes. It is a quite light and compact
instrument.
Clinometer
 Clinometer, also called the tangent Clinometer, is a simple instrument used for
determining the difference of elevations of the two points by measuring the
inclination of the line of sight.
 It is specially useful for plane tabling.
Sextant
 A sextant is an instrument used for measurement of the horizontal and vertical angles.
 The distinguishing feature of a sextant is the arrangement of two mirrors which
enables the observer to sight two different objects simultaneously.
 There are two types of sextants :
1. Nautical sextant
2. Box sextant.
Nautical sextant
Used of Nautical Sextant
3. The nautical sextant measures angle in the plane of the two objects and the
telescope.
4. An angle can be measured while the observer is on a ship or a boat.
5. It is specially useful for navigation and astronomical purposes.
6. The angle measured between the two objects at different elevations can be reduced
to the horizontal angle, if required.
 Box Sextant
 Uses of a Box Sextant
1. measuring angles in chain surveying
2. setting the perpendicular in chain surveying
3. locating inaccessible points in chain surveying by intersection.
4. The box sextant is extremely useful in reconnaissance.
Site Square
 The site square is an instrument used to set out two lines at right angles to each other.
Sounding Sextant
 The sounding sextant is generally used in hydrographic surveying.