Materials Types in Aviation Industry

• video
Objective of the lecture

Learn about the types of materials

 1. Reinforcing fibres

• Materials in fibrous form – use to prepare plastics,

metals and ceramics stronger, stiffer or tougher
• In addition to reinforcing – low density, electrical
conductivity, heat resistance
• The four reinforcing fibres use in current for aircraft
structures are, aramid, boron, carbon and glass fibres.
• SiC, polyethylene and quartz also use in currently.
 Carbon fibres (CF) / graphite fibres

• CF use often in combination with aramid or glass fibres.

• Boron fibres can displaced by C or SiC which are cheaper.
 2. Fibre forms

• Except B fibres all other fibres produced as bundles of

fine filaments which can be converted in to
unidirectional tapes, woven or knitted fabrics, mats or
chopped in to short lengths.
• B fiber produce as a single large diameter filament.
• The tapes and fabrics can be impregnated with resins to
form preimpregnated materials.
• The chopped fibres can be compounded with
thermoplastics, extruded and cut in to moulding
granules for injection moulding.
 Fibre forms

• These converted forms can be made with mixture of the

fibres to produce “hybrid” fabrics, tapes, etc.
• There are hundreds of different materials available, each
with particular mechanical or physical properties and
forms from which the optimum reinforcement should be
selected for the application.
3. Tows, rovings and yarns

• The bundles of fine filaments are given different names.

– for aramid and carbon fibres the material is made as a
loose bundle of filaments without twist, consist of 100
or 1000 of filaments which is called tow.
• Glass fibre is made as ‘strands’ of 102 or 204 filaments
which are assembled together without twist into roving,
or twisted together into yarn.
• A number of yarns twisted together to form a plied yarn.
 4. Unidirectional tapes

• Non woven tapes consist of tows or rovings spread out

to lay side-by-side without gaps.
• To hold the filaments in position they are impregnated
with a resin, which is partially cured to make it thick and
viscous or with a thermoplastic polymer.
• To prevent the resin sticking to other layers of tape it is
covered with silicone-coated ‘release’ paper.
• Woven unidirectional tapes have the tows or rovings in
the lengthwise direction (warp) and spaced (weft)filled
by a very fine yarn of polyester or glass fibre.
5. Woven fabrics
• Three basic weave are used for the advanced reinforcing
fibres.
- plain, twill and satin
1. Plain
2. Twill
3. Satin
In plain
Weave each
warp and
weft thread
passes over
one end or
pick and
under the
next
In Twill
Each end and
pick floats
over two,
sometimes
four crossing
threads.
In Satin

Each end and

pick floats over
N and under
one crossing
threads.
 Woven fabrics

• All above discussed weaves have ends and picks

crossing at 90 deg. Possible to make 45 deg and 60 deg.
• When the warp and weft threads are straight and
parallel the fabrics provided stronger and stiffer
composites because the reinforcing fibres are straight.
 Triaxial weave

• Triaxial weave fabrics

have three ends
which cross at 60
deg to each other.
- These are flexible
without allowing the
threads to separate.
- These triaxial weave
fabrics used in knee
and elbow areas of
space suits.
 Woven fabrics

• Plain, twill and satin are easy to drape over curved

surfaces because the threads in them become less
distorted by the weave pattern, which increases the
effective as reinforcement.
• In a composite the reinforcing fibre comprises 60 -70%.
•Strength and
modulus are
proportional
to the fibre
volume
fraction.
•The
properties of
a composite
with woven
reinforcement
are much
lower than
the values for
the fibers.
 6. Aramid fibres

• Two varieties of aramid fibres

• Meta aramid – Nomex (Dupont) trade name is widely
converted into a honeycomb core material for
sandwich structures for aircraft flooring, panels, etc.
• Para-aramid fibres are best known in dupont’s Kevlar
range.
 Aramid fibres

• It is better to use a mixture of carbon and aramid fibres in

a composite.
• C provide a high modulus and compressive strength.
• Aramid provides toughness and reduced density.

Aramid fibres Carbon fibres

 Aramid fibres

• Toughness - The area under the stress-strain curve.

• Due to high toughness, the material is very difficult to cut
or break.
• Special tools have been
developed for cutting
aramid composites.
• Pulp aramid fibres can
be used as a
replacement material to
asbestos.
 7. Boron

• Each filament consist of core, of either tungsten wire or

carbon fibre.
• A sheath of B, vapor deposited upon the core from
boron tricholride –hydrogen mixture.
• Due to lightest solid element of B fibre is practical to
use.
• Li and Be are reactive Li is alloyed with Al to reduce its
density.
• B fibre used for reinforcing metal matrices such as Al
and Mg.
 8. Carbon fibres

• Commercially made by two precursors.

- PAN based and pitch based
• Possible to use a large Varity of materials ; various
polymers, phenolic resins , rayon, etc.
 (i) Pan-based carbon fibres

•PAN precursor must be

spun under clean conditions
from acrylonitrile
polymerized with a co-
polymer and dissolved in a
solvent to form a dope
(thick liquid).
•This must be free from air.
• It pumped through a
spinnerette into a
coagulating bath which PAN is a long chain of acrylonitrile
molecules connected by the CH groups with
removes the solvent leaving the CN group on one side.
solid PAN filaments.
 (i) Pan-based carbon fibres

• The spinnerette may have 320,000 holes in it to produce a

tow of continuous filaments.
 (i) Pan-based carbon fibres

The higher the temperature used, the higher the

modulus of the fibre manufactured.
• Degree of covalent
cross-linking between
the graphene planes
decreased as
temperature increased,
but the crystalline size
keeps growing with
prolonging time, so the
tensile strength Modulus - which is a measure of how much it
decreases little with deforms elastically per unit pressure applied

further heat treatment

Strength - which is a measure of how much
while tensile modulus pressure is required to break it
keeps increasing.
 (ii) Pitch-based carbon fibres

• Pitch based fibres can have different properties such as ,

higher tensile modulus values and have a higher electrical
conductivity.
- For aircraft, where weight is critical, the important
comparison is between specific strength and specific
modulus.
Glass fibres
• Different glass
compositions provide
particular properties
• Cheap and good acid
resistance
• E-glass for special electrical
properties for radome
applications
-Magnesia free, fluorine free
Restricted on fluorine
emission
Glass fibres

• C-glass for chemical resistance

• D-glass for improved electrical grade for modern
radomes
• S or R glass- for higher strength and modulus than E-
glass for reinforcement of plastics
 Glass fibres manufacturing

• Glass fibres produce by molten glass by drawing it

through bushings having either 102 or 204 holes, at
high speed thus stretching the filament and reducing
the diameter.
• The filaments cool rapidly by radiation and convection
• Depending on the usage starch binder and a vegetable
oil lubricant use for the glass fibres
• Heat cleaned and add coupling agents
• Convert to rovings, mats, yarns.. etc
Quartz fibres

• Fibres of pure silica

• 9 micrometers diameter
• Similar mechanical properties to glass fibres, but
lower dielectric constant and thermal expansion
• Maintain their properties at high temperatures
• Even up to 1100 deg
• Rovings, tapes, fabrics available
Asbestos

• Provide properties which are difficult to match

• For brake pads and clutches
• Mineral which forms in five forms: chrysotile,
anthophyllite, crocidolite, amosite and tremolite
• Chrysotile is major source of long fibres.
• High modulus and good resistance to acids and heat
• Low diameter – one micrometer in diameter
• Health hazard as these fibrils can enter lungs to caise
cancer
Silicon carbide fibres

• Used for reinforcing metals

- Less susceptible to attack by molten Al
• Abrasion resistant
• Better strength and stiffness
Alumina fibres

• For metal reinforcement

• Alumina stable to 1300 deg
• Fibre 3 micrometer diameter provide better modulus
and strength
Alumina-boria-silica fibres

• Use in aircraft for composite fire barriers and for

insulation
• Metal matrix reinforcement
• Major for thermal insulation
Polyethylene fibres

• High strength fibres can be made

• A special medium molecular weight polymer can be
extruded and drawn or an ultrahigh molecular weight
polymer can be dissolved in a solvent and spun as a
gel.
• In the gel process solvent can be paraffin oil or wax,
mineral oil to which a phenolic stabilizer is added
• The obtained fibres are irregular
Polyethylene fibres

• Initial applications – ropes, sails

• Also composites with epoxy resin
• With PE fibre – impact resistance and high tensile
strength
• Hybrid composites with C fibre in epoxy resins
Metal fibres

• Metal coated glass and C fibre increase the electrical

conductivity and provide EMI shielding or protecting
against lightning strike for composites
• Stainless steel and Ni wire
• Continuous or chopped fibres and woven fabrics
including hybrid weaves with c or glass fibres are
used in laminates and short fibres are incorporated
into moulding granules for thermoplastic injection
moulding.
Matrices
• Surrounds the fibre reinforcement,
- to transfer loads to and between the fibres
- to protect them from damage (mechanical and
environmental)
Matrices for fibre-reinforced composites

Thermos
Thermoplastic
etting polymers
resins

Carbon Metals
Matrices for fibre-reinforced composites

• Thermosetting resins
- When subjected to cure with a hardener,
- Resin becomes hard, infusible solids
• Thermoplastic polymers
- Soften if heated but harden again on cooling
• Carbon and metal matrices
- Special high temperature applications such as brake
pads and engine components
Types of thermosetting resins

epoxy
polyester
resin

vinyl ester phenolic

resin resin
(i) epoxy resin

• All contain the ‘epoxy’ group at the end of a

molecular chain which consists of an oxygen atom
bridging two carbon atoms.
epoxy resin - types

1. ‘standard’ DGEBA (diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A)

2. Epoxy novolacs – a ‘cross’ between epoxy and phenolic
3. Cyclo-aliphatic (for high temperatures and toughness)
4. Halogenated (for fire-resistance)
5. Flexible (for improved impact resistance)
 epoxy resin

• Hardened by,
- Aromatic amines
- Aliphatic amines – cure the resin at ambient temperatures
- Acid anhydrides
- Polyamides
- Complex amines
 epoxy resin - properties

• A wide choice of forms from low viscosity liquids to solids

Matrix Examples of use
Epoxy – 120 deg curing Civil and subsonic aircraft
Epoxy – 180 deg curing Civil, subsonic and supersonic aircraft

• Latitude in processing conditions

• Low shrinkage
• Good mechanical properties
• Good chemical resistance
• Good adhesion to fibre reinforcement
• Thermal stability over wide range of temperature
• Good resistance to moisture
(ii) polyester resins

• The cheapest
• Better properties at normal temperatures
- Used for large components (boats)
(iii) vinyl ester resins

• a resin produced by the esterification of

an epoxy resin with an unsaturated monocarboxylic
acid.
• The reaction product is then dissolved in a reactive
solvent, such as styrene, to a 35–45 percent content
by weight.
• Alternative to polyester and epoxy materials in matrix
or composite materials, where its characteristics,
strengths, and bulk cost intermediate between
polyester and epoxy. 
(iv) Phenolic resins

• Lower mechanical properties

• High in thermal stability
• Do not emit toxic smoke
(v) polyimides

• Can withstand the highest temperatures

Polyimide resin

• Easier processing
• High temperature properties – engine parts
(vi) Bismaleimide resin

• The latest development for aircraft

• Withstand the ‘hot – wet ’ conditions
• Brittle material thus it should modify to increase the
toughness
• High speed aircraft, missiles, engines
Thermoplastic polymers
• Do not need storing under refrigeration
• Reinforced thermoplastic -two forms
1. Continuous fibre - similar to thermoset resin prepregs
2. Short fibre – reinforced moulding granuals

Continuous fibre-reinforced material

• Possible to reuse offcuts easily by grinding
• Composites are easily repairable (thermoplastic will
melt and bond to another sheet of the material)
 Thermoplastic polymers

• Polyamides PA
• Polypropylene PP
• Polyphenylene PPS - Polyphenylenesulfide (PPS) is an
organic polymer consisting of aromatic rings linked
with sulfides.

• Polyetherimide PEI
• Polyethersulphone PES
• Polyetheretherketone PEEK
 PEEK

• PEEK polymers are obtained by step-growth

polymerization by the dialkylation of bisphenolate salts.
Thermoplastic polymers

• The mechanical properties , strength and modulus will

largely be controlled by the fibre used, arrangement of
it and the volume fraction incorporated.
• Chemical and thermal properties controlled by the
matrix.
 Rule of mixtures

• pf vf + prvr = pc
where,
P = specific gravity
V = volume fraction
f = fibre
r = resin
C = composite
This rule applies for strength and modulus provided
allowance is made for the fibre arrangement in multi-
directional composites.
Carbon

• Used as a matrix with carbon fibre reinforcement

(carbon/carbon composite)
• For high temperature applications – nozzles, brakes
Ex: compare with steel c/c brakes on Boeing 757
aircraft save 295 Kg in weight and extend the life of
the brake from 1000 to 3000 landings.
 Carbon – carbon composites

• Two processes
- Impregnation (resin followed by carbonisation of the
liquid)
- Vapour deposition (deposits carbon in the pores of the
reinforcement by cracking methane and acetylene
repeatedly)
- Both processors are complicated
- required several weeks (brake disc about 5 cm thick)
Metals

• Modification of the specific modulus (all metals except

Be have the same specific modulus) by reinforcing
them with fibres.
• Al alloy used for aircraft in matrix with Mg or Ti.
• Electrical cables, batteries, bearings- Cu, Pb, Ni, Sn
• Fibres- B, C, SiC, alumina and metal wires of steel,
tungsten, tantalum, Be or molybdenum
CORE MATERIALS

• The deflection of a beam of a uniform material under a

given load depends on its geometry and the modulus of
the material.
• It is increased as the cube of the length and decreased
as the cube of the thickness.
• As weight is critical in aircraft, it is preferable to use a
sandwich construction where the outside surfaces have
highest tensile and compressive stresses.
• The core is a lighter material.
 Core materials

Core materials

honeycomb plastic foams sphere-filled resin

Balsa wood Syntactic core material

(i) Honeycomb

• Produce from various

- Al alloys
- glass fabric/resin composite
- meta-aramid paper (Nomex) /phenolic resin
- kraft or other cellulose papers with or without resin
impregnation
• Two manufacturing process
- Expansion process
- Alternative corrugation process
Honeycomb
Expansion process

• Most common for light weight honeycomb involves

stacking sheets of web material upon which lines of
adhesive have been printed and curing the adhesive.

• Block is then expanded so that the web between the

bonded strips forms cells, which, depending on the
amount of expansion.
• Hexagonal or rectangular
Expansion process
Corrugation process

• Used for thick web materials for high density cores.

• Sheets of web material are corrugated between rolls,

adhesive is applied to the tops of the corrugations and
the sheets are stacked, cured and expanded.
Corrugated block
 Configurations

Other special cell shapes produced to provide extra flexibility for the
fabrication of compound curvatures with small radii and for making
tubes or columns.
Newest variety of a type of honeycomb

• Consist of square tubes made of braided fibre-

reinforced resin which assembled side by side.
• Tubes of different cross-section may be put together to
provide a tapered core.
• Wires or fluids may be passed through the core in one
direction.
 (ii) Plastics foams

• Produce with either “closed” or “open”

(interconnected) pores and as either preformed rigid
sheets or as fluids for injection into cavities.
• Thermoplastic and thermoset materials can be used
• Commonly used for aircraft components are PVC and
polymethacrylimide (Rohacell).
• Polystyrene was used for experimental aircraft like
gossamer Condor
 Plastics foams

• The choice is affected by the performance of the core

material in a fire, in terms of both the fire resistance and
the toxicity of the smoke produced.
(iii) Syntactic core materials

• Consist of resins filled with microspheres to reduce

the density.
• Microspheres including glass, ceramic, plastics, carbon
and some are metal-coated to provide EMI shielding

•
 Syntactic core materials

• Both solid and hollow spheres produce

• Hollow types give a lower density core material
• Filled resin is available in sheet form like prepreg or as
a paste.

[Prepreg: pre-impregnated reinforcing material. It is

impregnated with resin and partly cured]
• Next lecture – non ferrous metals and alloys used in
aviation industry.