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Cellular Networks
Cellular Concept
is the foundation of
mobile wireless cellular networks
and supports users
in locations
that are not easily served by
wired networks.
Cellular Concept
1968 – AT&T proposed the concept of cellular mobile system
to FCC, although technology was not available until late
1970s to implement cellular telephony
1979 – world’s first cellular system implemented by NTT in
Japan
600 FM duplex channels (25 KHz for each one-way link) in the
800 MHz band
To get around the limitations on available frequencies, the
following approach was implemented:
A large number of low-power transmitters (<=100W) with
shorter radius
Because the range of the transmitter is small, an area can be
divided into cells
one base station per cell - transmitter, receiver, control unit
A range of frequencies allocated to each cell.
Mobile Broadband Networks – Cellular
05/02/2020 3-4
Architecture
COMSATS PCS
Cellular Concept
Frequency allocation such that co-channel interference is limited
Adjacent cells assigned different frequencies.
Cells sufficiently distant from each other to allow frequency reuse
“Hand-over“ (handoff) techniques for mobile units moving from
cell to cell.
Cell Shape
• Square Cell Pattern
– If cell width is d, then a cell has four neighbors at a
distance d and 4 neighbors at a distance SQRT(2d) from
cell centre
– As a mobile user moves towards cell’s boundaries, it is
best if all adjacent antennas are equidistant. This
simplifies the task of determining when to switch the
user to an adjacent antenna and which antenna to use.
• Hexagonal Cell Pattern
– Provides for equidistant antennas
– Radius R, is radius of circle that circumscribes it
– Distance between adjacent cell centres is d = SQRT(3R)
Mobile Broadband Networks – Cellular
05/02/2020 3-6
Architecture
COMSATS PCS
Cellular Concepts
• Areas divided into cells:
– Each served by its own antenna => multiple low-power
transmitters.
– Served by base station consisting of transmitter, receiver, and
control unit.
– Band of frequencies allocated.
– Adjacent cells assigned different frequencies to avoid
interference or crosstalk.
=>> Frequency reuse.
D
R d
D
d 3R 3N
R
N I 2 J 2 ( I J ) I , J 0,1,2,.....
N 1,3,4,7,9,12,13,16,19,21,...
D d 3R
3N
R
Dmin = 1.6 x SQRT(3 x 7) = 1.6 x 4.58 = 7.3 km
power
…
Interference
Adjacent channel
interference
- Microcells:
- Used to serve high density traffic area.
- 100m to 1km, supported by a rooftop level base
station antenna.
- Sectored cells:
- Used to reduce cochannel interference.
- Umbrella cells:
- Used to reduce the need for handover in microcells.
Mobile Broadband Networks – Cellular
05/02/2020 3-20
Architecture
COMSATS PCS
antenna coverage
-3dB
Mobile Broadband Networks – Cellular
05/02/2020 3-22
Architecture
COMSATS PCS
Cellular Concepts: Interference in Sectored Cells
• Each sector is operated at
a different frequency
band.
7-cell frequencyMobile
reuseBroadband Networks – Cellular
05/02/2020 3-23
Architecture
COMSATS PCS
Spatial Diversity
Multipath in wireless transmissions results in
“Rayleigh Fading” (or fast fading).
Two receivers
Base
station
tower
Mobile Broadband Networks – Cellular
05/02/2020 3-24
Architecture
COMSATS PCS
• Call blocking:
– No free traffic channels, busy tone returned to user.
• Call termination:
– MTSO is informed, traffic channels released
• Call drop:
– Resulting from weak signal, MSTO is informed
• Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber:
– MTSO sets up the connection.
Handover or Handoff
Base cell boundary Base
station f1 f2 station
Handover occurs when a mobile phone moves from a cell
to another.
Power levels are constantly measured by base stations
and/or mobile phones to decide whether a handover is
needed.
Mobile Broadband Networks – Cellular
05/02/2020 3-29
Architecture
COMSATS PCS
Handover or Handoff
• Handoff types
– Network initiated, based on received signals from the mobile unit.
– Mobile assisted, via providing info to network concerning signals
received at mobile unit
Handover or Handoff
• Handoff strategies
Handoff Strategies
• Relative signal strength.
– The mobile unit is handed off from BS A to BS B when signal strength
at B first exceeds that at A
– Can result in ping-pong effect
Power Control
• Dynamic power control in a cellular system.
– Received power must be sufficiently above the background
noise for effective communication
– Desirable to minimize power in the transmitted signal from
the mobile
• Reduce cochannel interference
• Alleviate health concerns
• Save battery power
Power Control
• Open-loop power control
– Depends solely on mobile unit.
– No feedback from BS.
– Not as accurate as closed-loop, but can react quicker to fluctuations in
signal strength.
Traffic Engineering
• Ideally, available channels would equal number of subscribers
active at one time
• In practice, not feasible to have capacity handle all possible users.
• For N simultaneous user capacity and L subscribers
• L < N => non-blocking system
• L > N => blocking system
Blocking system:
Blocking probability (B):
Probability that call request is blocked.
What capacity is needed to achieve a certain upper
bound on probability of blocking, B?
Traffic Engineering
• Traffic intensity (A):
– Load presented to a system:
A h
• = mean rate of calls attempted per unit time.
• h = mean holding time per successful call.
• A = traffic intensity = * h Erlang
Traffic Engineering
Performance is measured by the blocking probability.
Blockage rate depends on the number of circuits available,
the number of initiated calls, and the length of the
conversation.
Erlang B formula:
AN
B( N , A) N!
N
A i
i 0
i!