Memory Models

Introduction to Psychology
Chapter 8 part one
Different Approaches to Memory
• Cognitive (not behaviorist) approaches to learning
• Several different models of memory
• Ways of organizing our thinking about what memory does
Information-Processing Model
• Information processing
• Brain and computer operations similar
• Memory model
• Operations: encoding, retention, and retrieval
• Variety of control mechanisms at each point
Information-processing model
• Information enters through sensory receptors
• Attention selects information
• Information encoded for next memory stage
• Some saved, some lost or discarded – retention
• Must call up information when needed - retrieval
 Information-Processing Model
Sensory
information

STORAGE

INPUT RETRIEVAL
economics literature Information is Information is used
taken into brain as basis of behaviors
and interactions

culture science
religion
Information gets
processed, analyzed,
and stored until use
history math
Atkinson and Schiffrin’s Model
• Sensory Memory
• Brief representation of stimulus during processing
• Short-Term Memory (STM)
• Limited capacity (7 items)
• Duration is about 30 seconds
• Now includes working memory (Baddeley)
• Long-Term Memory (LTM)
• Large capacity and long duration
Sensory memory
• Holds image or experience until processing
• Visual – iconic – less than 1 sec
• Auditory – echoic – 3-4 sec
Short-term memory (STM)

• Attention transfers information from sensory register to STM

• Usually lasts less than one minute unless strategies for extending are
used
Some STM strategies
• Rehearsal – mental repetition
• Preference for transforming information into acoustic codes
• Sometimes convert information into something more memorable
and rehearse that
• Story line
• Connections between items
• Acronyms
• Chunking – grouping information into bits
• Capacity limited to 7 items (or bits) +/- 2
• 73274959473 (11) becomes 732-7495-9473 (3)
Working Memory Model
• Devised by Baddeley to further explain STM
• Working memory breaks STM into components:
• Central Executive:
• Drives whole system
• Allocates data to the subsystems
• Deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem solving
• Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad
• Stores and processes visual or spatial information
• Inner eye
• Phonological loop
• Stores and processes auditory information
• Inner voice and inner ear (loop)
Working Memory Model
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
• Long-term memory
• Storehouse for almost unlimited information over long periods of time
Types of Long-Term Memory
• Episodic
• Information about time and places (when, where)
• Semantic
• Memory for meaning (importance)
• Semantic and episodic memories grouped together as declarative
memory
• Procedural (non-declarative)
• Memory for skills and procedures (how to)
Types of Long Term Memory
Declarative memory Procedural memory

Semantic memory Episodic memory

“I know what “I remember buying “I remember how

a guitar is.” my first guitar.” to play a guitar.”
LTM
• Easy to store procedural and semantic memories, but stores episodic
information less well
• Episodic information more vulnerable to amnesia and false memories
Organization in Long-Term Memory
• Organization eases retrieval process
• Grouped into categories
• Associative network: memories linked together through experience
• Spreading activation model: representations of concepts and their
characteristics are activated (ie: canary and bird)
• Closeness of association affects retrieval time – distant associations take longer
 Example of Associative Links

Animal Skin

Tiger Cat Dog Breathes Feathers

Pat Sparrow
Bird
Robin
Canary
Red Ostrich

Orange Yellow Sings

Green
Retrieval of Long-Term Memories
• Three ways to test retrieval
• Recall method: cues or hints used for recall
• Recognition method: select correct from alternative information
(ie: multiple choice)
• Relearning method: relearn previous learned information
• Frustration if unable to retrieve information
Levels of Processing
• Two levels of memory processing
• Matter of degree, not separate types
• Differing levels of processing during encoding process
Levels of Processing
• Processing continuum
• Shallow level
• Surface features
• Deeper level
• Involves greater elaboration (creating more associations between new and
existing memories)
• An excellent way to improve memory
Study Strategies
• Distributed practice
• Spaced learning periods
• Massed practice
• Learning is “crammed” into a
single session
• Distributed practice leads to
better retention