1 Research Methods

Unit 4
Process in Conducting
Research
 Lesson 1: The research processes
2

 Stages in the research process

 Conceptualization,
 Contextualization,
 Data collection and/or generation,
 Data analysis and
 Reporting conclusions.
 Lesson 1: The research processes
3

 Conceptualization:
 Defining the 'problem';
 Establishing the research questions;
 Identifying the aims;
 Specifying the testable hypotheses;
 Deciding on the research approach;
 Identifying the most appropriate way

of undertaking the data collection

and/or generation.
 Lesson 1: The research processes
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 Contextualization:
 Putting the research in the context of similar
research done in the past
 looking carefully at the methodology, data
collection methods, and limitations of the
previous work
 Data Analysis:
 Data collection method and subsequent data
analysis techniques should match
 Covered in detail on “Quantitative methods and
computational” module
 Reporting Conclusions: Writing up and / or
further dissemination (Unit 6)
 Lesson 1: The research processes
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 Data collection and/or

generation:
 Availability of data may influence a

modification of aims/objectives and

redesign of the experiment
 Back-up plans may be necessary to

accommodate unforeseen changes

 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
6

Research Methods – Data Collection

and Analysis
2.1 Observation studies:
 Process of observing and recording events or
situations
 Useful for discovering how individuals or
groups of people or animals behave, act or
react
Two types:
 Participant observation:

 Limited to studies of human subjects


 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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 Non-Participant observation:
 Observe the activities without taking part
 Advantage of the researcher unduly influencing
the research activities
 Less likely to understand fully the meanings
behind behavior in the group studied
 Common to study animal behavior, and
observation and recording of natural
phenomenon
 Human observation studies may be done
covertly or overtly
 Covert research will lead to a more valid study
as the subjects are less likely to modify their
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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 Data collection for observation

studies:
 May use film or tape to record

events, or writing up notes

afterwards
 Careful preparation required to be

unobtrusive
 Common criticism is that it is highly

subjective, dependent in large on the

researcher's own focus, ideas, and
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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2.2. Questionnaires:
 Type of survey where respondents write
answers to questions posed by the
researcher on a question form
 Respondents are asked identical questions
and answers are analyzed, patterns found
and comparisons made
 Closed choice or fixed questions:
respondent chooses an option from a
number of given answers
 easy to classify and quantify, require less time and
effort; do not allow the respondents to qualify,
develop or clarify their answers

 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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 Advantages of questionnaires:
 Quick
 Cheap
 Efficient
 Reach a large number of people
 Consistent format - little scope for bias introduced by
different researchers.
 Disadvantages of questionnaires:
 Limited answers
 Superficiality due to lack of qualitative depth
 Not always accurate: not possible to verify answers ,
honesty of respondents
 Predetermined boxes may not be appropriate
 Requires formulation of clear and unambiguous
instructions, and careful wording of questions
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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 Data Collection for questionnaires:

 Information is recorded on forms by
respondents
 Questionnaires can be distributed:
 Personally: Completed on the spot
 By post: increases the cost and decreases the
response rate
 On the Web: easy to respond to but an implicit
bias in that it requires computer literacy and
internet access
 Tips for constructing questionnaires:
 Get the beginning right: encourage respondents to
read on
 Make the questionnaire look attractive
 Use a large enough font size for readability

 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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2.3 Interviews:
 limited to cases where the subjects of study
are humans (face-to-face encounter with an
interviewer)
 Focused on a specific content
 Purely Quantitative (Structured) interview:
 like a closed ended questionnaire
 highly structured, formal interviews which are
determined in advance and have fixed responses
 Purely qualitative (unstructured) interview:
 like an informal conversation
 questions are asked in the natural course of
interaction and arise from the particular context
 Semi-structured interviews: majority of interviews
 specific questions already predetermined that are asked
to the respondent in a particular order
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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 Advantages of Interviews:
 High response rate
 Can collect complex information
 High degree of researcher control
 Can be made more responsive to early

results
 Relaxed environment
 Disadvantages of Interviews:
 Limited sample only
 In-depth interviews can be difficult to

analyze
 May be a hostile reaction
 Process is time consuming
 Recording techniques may cause problems
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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 Data Collection for Interviews:

 Structured:
 Interviewer simply ticks on boxes on a form
 Unstructured:
 Taking notes: May miss points, reduces attention to
respondent
 Tape recorder: Nothing missed, full attention to
respondent; But respondent may be uncomfortable on
tape, tape review takes time
 Tips for conducting interviews:
 Begin with self introduction, purpose of the survey, and
ensure confidentiality.
 Be friendly and look as if you are enjoying the interview
and are interested in what they have to say.
 Be aware of the importance of body language in face-to-
face interviews.
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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2.4 Focus Groups:

 A type of interview that involves carefully

selected individuals (7-10) who usually do

not know each other
 They hold particular characteristics which

the researcher believes are necessary to

the topic of focus
 Group discussion; not necessary to reach

a consensus
 Useful in providing qualitative data which

gives an insight into attitudes and

perceptions
 Researcher acts as a moderator posing
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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2.5 Document Analysis (Content

Analysis):
 The process of using any kind of document,
films, television programs and photographs
as well as written sources, such as books,
papers and letters, for analysis in relation to
a particular research question
 Could be used as a singular method of
research or a supplementary form of inquiry
 Differs from the majority of research
methods in two major ways:
 It is an indirect form of research – no original
data generated
 It is an 'unobtrusive', or 'non-reactive' method –
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
17

 Advantages of Document Analysis:

 The data never alters and can be subject to

re-analysis.
 Unobtrusive
 Events can be compared over time and

cultures
 Gives an expert understanding
 Cheap
 Disadvantages of Document Analysis :
 Subject to bias and subjectivity – document

may have particular purpose; author's own

particular account; subject to political bias
 Evidence may be out of date
 May not be accurately recorded
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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 General guidelines for carrying out

document analysis:
 Decide initially on categories for research,

 Keep focused; do not let your research

become too wide.

 Examples of use:
 For studying racial or sexual bias in

newspapers, school textbooks etc.

 To obtain a historical understanding of a

particular institution
 Can also be used for analyzing qualitative

research data from interviews etc.

 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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2.6 Mathematical Modeling:

 Used to analyze relationships

between different variables and

to predict possible outcomes, or
causal effects

 Experiments can be designed

from models of systems, which
aim to define links between
variables and outcomes
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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 Advantages of Mathematical Modeling:

 Can extend powers of deductive reasoning
 Attempts to be objective - maths is 'neutral'.

 An aid to causal explanation and can

therefore help calculate the effects of
actions
 Disadvantages of Mathematical Modeling
:
 Does not explain why variables are linked to

particular outcomes
 Can not explain why particular variables are

important
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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2.7 The Experimental Method:

 Setting up an experiment in order to test a
particular theory or hypothesis
 “Experimentation is concerned with seeing
what changes occur if something new is
tried out and what the effects of these
changes on something else” (Robson,
1978)
 The researcher alters one particular element or
factor (variable), in order to assess the effects of
this change
 Particularly associated with the physical and life
sciences
 Measurement is required before, during and after
the experiment
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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Two different types of experiment

 Laboratory Experiment:
 The researcher will conduct a small-scale study where
subjects can be manipulated, observed and tested in
a controlled environment
 Data is often subjected to statistical analysis
 Creates an artificial situation where events normally
linked are separated
 Field Experiment:
 Takes place outside the laboratory
 Reduced researcher control, which may hide the

effects of changes made

 But the results gained can be still be generalized to

the real world

Research into human behavior tested by
 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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Experimental Research is often used where:

 There is time priority in a causal relationship

(cause precedes effect),

 There is consistency in a causal relationship (a

cause will always lead to the same effect),

and
 The magnitude of the correlation is great.

General tips for carrying out experiments:

 Careful preparation, and consultation with

experienced researchers
 Project design, sample selection and

measurement of dependent variables are crucial

 Lesson 2: The Research Processes
Described
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 Advantages of Experimental Method:

 Ideas can be tested in a controlled way
 Ideal for investigating causal relationships
 Can generalize effects
 Scientifically validated findings give greater value to
research

 Disadvantages of Experimental Method:

 Viewed as unethical where human subjects are
involved
 Results may be different in the real world to those
discovered in a controlled environment
 The influence of all variables can never be eliminated

 Restricted range
 Large amount of preparation is required.