Civil Engineering Materials

(For NEA)
General knowledge of building materials, their
different properties and their use in construction

Building Materials and their use

 Building material is any material used for construction
purpose such as materials for house building. Wood, cement,
aggregates, metals, bricks, concrete, clay etc.
 The choice of these are based on their cost effectiveness for
building projects.
 The Different Sectors of use are as follows
• Roads and Bridges
• Houses (Buildings)
• Retraining and Boundary walls
• Dams
• Irrigation Canals Barrages and many more
Properties of Building Materials
Physical Properties
 These are the properties required to estimate the quality
and condition of the material without any external force.
The physical properties of engineering materials are as
follows.

1. Bulk Density of Building Materials

 Bulk density is the ratio of mass to the volume of the material in
its natural state that is including voids and pores. It is expressed in
kg/m3. Bulk density influences the mechanical properties of
materials like strength, heat and conductivity etc. 
2. Porosity of Building Materials
 Porosity gives the volume of the material occupied by pores. It is
the ratio of volume of pores to the volume of material. Porosity
influences many properties like thermal conductivity, strength,
bulk density, durability etc.
Properties of Building Materials
Physical Properties Continued…..
3. Water Absorption
 The capacity of a material to absorb and retain water in it is
known as water absorption. It is expressed in % of weight of dry
material. It depends up on the size, shape and number of pores
of material.
4. Hygroscopicity
 Hygroscopicity is the property of a material to absorb water
vapor from the air. It depends on the relative humidity,
porosity, air temperature etc. Materials of High hygroscopicity
can be used in conditions where moisture
5. Coefficient of Softening
 Coefficient of softening of a material is the ration of
compressive strength of a saturated material to its compressive
strength in dry state. It affects the strength of water absorbent
materials like soil.
Properties of Building Materials
Physical Properties Continued…..
6. Fire Resistance of Building Materials
 The ability to withstand against fire without changing its shape and
other properties. Fire resistance of a material is tested by the
combined actions of water and fire. Fireproof materials should
provide more safety in case of fire.
7. Frost Resistance
 The ability of a material to resist freezing or thawing is called frost
resistance. It is depends upon the density and bulk density of
material. Denser materials will have more frost resistance. Moist
material have low frost resistance and they lose their strength in
freezing and become brittle.
8. Chemical resistance
 It is the ability of the material to withstand the effect of acids , alkali
, corrosive gases and salty solutions. This property is important
specially in structures to be built in harsh environment
9. Durability
 It is property of material to resist the combined action of components
of the atmosphere
Properties of Building Materials
Mechanical Properties
 Mechanical properties of the materials are find out by
applying external forces on them. These are very
important properties which are responsible for behavior
of a material in its job. 
1. Strength of Building Materials
 The capacity of a material to resist failure caused by loads
acting on it is called as strength. The load may be compressive,
tensile or bending. It is determined by dividing the ultimate load
taken by the material with its cross sectional area. Strength is an
important property for any construction materials.
2. Hardness of Building Materials
 The property of a materials to resist scratching by a herder
body. MOHS scale is used to determine the hardness of a
materials. Hardness is most important to decide the usage of
particular aggregate. It also influences the workability.
 Properties of Building Materials
Mechanical Properties Continued….
 Elasticity of Building Materials
 The capacity of a material to regain its initial shape and size after
removal of load is known as elasticity and the material is called as
elastic material. Ideally elastic materials obey Hooke’s law in which
stress is directly proportional to strain. Which gives modulus of
elasticity as the ratio of unit stress to unit deformation. Higher the
value of modulus of elasticity lower the deformations.
 Plasticity
 When the load is applied on the material, if it will undergo permanent
deformation without cracking and retain this shape after the removal
of load then it is said to be plastic material and this property is called
as plasticity. They give resistance against bending, impact etc.
 Brittleness
 When the material is subjected to load, if it fails suddenly without
causing any deformation then it is called brittle material and this
property is called as brittleness.
 Properties of Building Materials
Mechanical Properties Continued….
1. Fatigue
 If a material is subjected to repeated loads, then the failure occurs at
some point which is lower than the failure point caused by steady
loads. This behavior is known as fatigue.
2. Impact Strength
 If a material is subjected to sudden loads and it will undergo some
deformation without causing rupture is known as its impact strength. It
designates the toughness of material.
3. Abrasion Resistance
 The loss of material due to rubbing of particles while working is called
abrasion. The abrasion resistance for a material makes it durable and
provided long life.
4. Creep
 Creep the deformation caused by constant loads for long periods. It is
time dependent and occurs at very slow rate. It is almost negligible in
normal conditions. But at high temperature conditions creep occur
rapidly.
 Properties of Building Materials
Chemical Properties of Building Materials
 The properties of materials relating to the chemistry or against the
chemical actions or chemical combinations are termed as chemical
properties. And they are

1. Chemical Resistance of Building Materials

 The ability of a construction materials to resist the effects by
chemicals like acids, salts and alkalis is known as chemical resistance.
Underground installations, constructions near sea etc. should be built
with great chemical resistance.
2. Corrosion Resistance
 Formation of rust (iron oxide) in metals, when they are subjected to
atmosphere is called as corrosion. So, the metals should be corrosive
resistant. To increase the corrosion resistance proper measures should
be considered. Otherwise it will damage the whole structure.
 Properties of Building Materials
Thermal Properties of Building Materials
1. Thermal Capacity of Building Materials
 Thermal capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat and it is
required to design proper ventilation.
2. Thermal Conductivity
 The amount of heat transferred through unit area of specimen with
unit thickness in unit time is termed as thermal conductivity. It is
measured in kelvins. It depends on material structure, porosity, density
and moisture content.
3. Thermal Resistivity
 It is the ability to resist heat conduction. And it is the reciprocal of
thermal conductivity.
4. Specific Heat
 Specific heat is the quantity of heat required to heat 1 N of material by
1oC. Specific heat is useful when we use the material in high
temperature areas. 
Investigation and testing of construction materials

 Natural construction materials like aggregates , sand , stone ,

clay , marble , slate , granite etc. have to be burrowed from
their quarries.
 Since the materials have a certain quality to provide also the
excavation shall not effect the environment or any other
factors , therefore a proper investigation and analysis is
required for the extraction of construction materials. The
process of Investigation for the construction is as follows

1. Searching for Construction Materials

It involves the process of locating of quarries. The quarry
sites meeting the different criteria have to be selected with
the help of maps and photographs
Requirements of Quarry Site
1. Location
Borrow pit shall be located near the construction site and if preferable shall
be along the river channel
2. Size and Shapes
The borrow pit shall have size enough to fulfil the requirement or at least
enpugh to economically quarry materials , in terms of shape a regular shape
rectangle , square etc. is more preferred as irregular boundaries make it
difficult to excavate
3. Slopes
Borrow areas shall not be located/selected in place of fragile geology and
unstable slopes
4. Depth
Depth shall be sufficient generally a depth upto the GWT is taken as available
depth which may be even less due to government regulations.
5. Drainage
The quarry sites shall not fall in the natural drainage lines as problem of
watering may occur.
6. Environmental Aspects
Effects on the environment like pollution , change of demography , effect to
society , effect to engineering structures etc. shall be considered
Method of Locating
Selection of sites that satisfy the above requirement is done by the
use of maps and photographs the different features that each kind of
map gives are as follows

1. Geological Map
 Geological structures
 Structural attitude of the strata
 Thickness of each strata
 Degree of weathering
 Terrain
 Hazard mapping

2. Topographical Maps
• Land Surface relief and position
• Man made features
• Position of gulleys , ridges , mountain , passes etc
3. Aerial Photographs
 Shape, size and pattern
 Shadow and tone
 Regional and Local site features
 Bedding , Faults , Folds etc
2. Exploration
It is the process of determining the condition of the quarry site.
Some , methods are
• For shallow soil deposits excavation is done by pitting
• For Deep deposits in soil boring is used
• Core Drilling is done for rock quarry

The collected samples are then tested in the laboratory

3. Reserve Estimation
It is the process of determining the quantity of the construction
material in the bedding this can be done by using the formula
V = S*t
Where
V = Volume of the strata
S = Cross sectional area
t = Strike length
Natural and Artificial Building Materials
 Construction materials can be generally categorized into
two sources, natural and synthetic.
1. Natural Construction Materials
 Natural materials are those that are unprocessed or
minimally processed by industry, such as lumber or glass.
2. Artificial Construction Materials
 Synthetic materials are made in industrial settings after
much human manipulations, such as plastics and petroleum
based paints. Both have their uses.
Mineral Materials
Stone :
Stones are fragmented rocks , which are used in civil engineering
construction works
Rock is the material which forms the earths crust it does not have a
fixed shape but is composed by one or more minerals combined
togerher
Stones are very important in civil engineering works and are
involved in almost everytihing some of the main used of stones are
as follows
 Construction of residential and public buildings
 Construction of dams , weirs , harbours , bridges etc.
 Used in road metal and railway ballasts
 Used as aggregate in concrete
 Used in decorative works
Despite this every rock is not suitable for every rock in oreder to
study the suitability of rocks one has to understand the
classification of rock (by which they can understand what type of
rock to choose) and the different properties and their tests so as to
Stone :
Classification of stone
Based on formation/Geological classification
1. Igneous rock:-
 Rocks formed by the cooling of Magma are called igneous rock. These rocks are
stronger than other kind of rocks and have a glossy and fused texture. Based
on the location in of the cooling process these rocks are further classified as.
 
I. Intrusive rock
 If the cooling of magma across below the surface of earth then it is called
intrusive rock ,It is of two type
 a) Plutonic rock:- If magma cools at very great depths(3 to 8 km ) below the
surface of earth then it is called plutonic rock e.g. granite, pegmatite. These
rocks have a smooth appearance and are strongest type.
 b) Hypabyssal rock: - If rocks formed at only 2-3 km from the surface of earth,
then it is called hypabyssal rock. e.g.:- dolerite, porphyry micro-granite and
diorite.
 
II. Extrusive Rock: -
 If cooling of magma at the surface then the rock is called extrusive rock. It is
also called volcanic rock e.g. Basalt trap andesite, dacite, obsidian, pumice,
rhyolite, scoria,
2. Sedimentary Rock
 If igneous rocks are eroded by agents like wind water etc
and gradually deposited in layers at the same or different
place, then the kind of rock is called sedimentary rock. The
process of formation of rock is called petrifaction
 These rocks show stratification i.e. are formed of layers
having slight difference in their characteristics. Therefore
they are also known as stratified rocks
 e.g.:- Sandstone, Limestone, Gravel , magnesite , laterite
etc.

3. Metamorphic Rock:-
 If igneous or sedimentary rock are subjected to high
pressure and (or) temperature, then the original crystals of
the rock undergo recrystallization and metamorphoses to a
new kind which is very different form parent rock. This kind
of rock is called metamorphic rock.
Chemical classification (Based on Composition)
 Siliceous Rock :- Rocks which have silica as the main
constituent are called Silicious rock
 e.g.:- Quartzite, Basalt, trap, gneiss. Granite
 Argilaceous Rock:- Rock which have alumina(Clay) as major
constituent are called argillaceous rock e.g.:- laterite, china
clay, slate
 Calcaerous Rock:- Rock which contain lime as major component
are called Calcaerous stone e.g.:- Marble Limestone

Physical Classification
 Stratified: - Rocks that are formed in distinct layer are called
stratified e.g. Limestone, etc.
 Unstratified: - Rocks that cannot be split into thin layers.
e.g. :- Pumice, granite
 Foliated: - Rocks that can be split along a certain direction are
called foliated rocks. e.g. Quartzite
Characteristics of Good stones.
Appearance and Colour :
The stones shall have good appearance of surface and a uniform colour
specially if they are used in decoration or facing works. The use of
stones having iron oxide shall be prohibited as they lead to discoloration
and disfiguration with time
Weight :
The specific gravity and hence the weight of the stone shall be high as
heavy stones resist more weight and are more durabe due to higher
compaction and lower porosity
Water Absorption :
Stones shall have a lower water absorption if stones absirt water then
they will absorb water which contains acid and fumes which will lead to
the detoriation of the stone. The water absorption depends upon the
porosity , therefore compacted stones are more preffered
Fineness of Grain :
Stone with finer grains are suitable for engineering works as coarsely
formed stones are not able to take higher magnitude of loads
Characteristics of Good stones.
Fire resistance :
It is the capacity to resist fire generally homogenous , fine grained and dense
stones have higher fire resistance.
Electrical Resistance :
Stones used in areas with electrical susceptibility shall have higher resistance
as chances of electric leakage are dangerous
Hardness and Toughness :
Hardness is the capacity to resist the action of wear and tear while toughness
is the capacity to resist impact. Stones specially those being used in the road
and railway(ballast) construction shall be sufficiently hard and tough
Strength :
It is the resistance to the compressive load , since stones are subjected to
huge amount of compression they shall have sufficeient strength. Generally
dense stones have high strength
Durability :
Stones Specially those used in harsh environment shall have sufficient
resistance to the environmental action. Genrally fine grained compact and
homogenous stones have more durability
Selection of stones.
Test of stones.

Hardness
   Test
It is used to test the resistance of the stone to wear and tear(for
stones used in surfacing).
It is done using dorry's apparatus
Procedure :
 Cylinder Diameter 25mm and height 25mm is taken from the
stone
 It is places in dorrys testing machine and pressed with a load
of 1250 gm
 The disc of the machine is rotated at 28 rpm
 Sand is continually sprayed over the disc during rotation
 After 1000 revolution , the specimen is taken out and weighted
 Coefficient of hardness is calculated as
Test of stones.

Crushing test
It is used to test the resistance of the stone to crushing load.
It is not carries out for ordinary work
Procedure :
 Stones are cut into cubes of 40mm
 The specimens are soaked in water for 72 hours
 With the help of 5mm plywood load is applied axially at
the rate of 13.7 N/mm2
 The crushing strength is determined as sthe load required
to crush the stone divided by the strength of the stone

Note : For aggregate the crushing strength is determined by

SCV test
Test of stones.

Impact test
It is used to test the resistance of the stone to impact load. It is
done in impact testing machine
Procedure :
 Sample of size 25 mm dia and 25mm height are taken from the
stone
 The sample is placed in the machine
 A 20N steel hammer is droppd vertically over the sample directly
vertically
 The height of first fall is 1cm second fall is 2cm and so on
 The blow at which the stone breaks is noted
 The number of blow represents the toughness index of the stone

Note : For aggregate the toughness is determined by AIV test

Test of stones.

Attrition
   test
It is used to test the resistance of the stone to wear and tear. (For
stones to be used as road aggregate)
Procedure :
 Stone are broken into size of 60 mm each
 50N of the sample is taken
 The sample are then placed into the cylinder of the dewal’s
machine
 The cylinder are closed making an angle of 30 to the horizontal
and are rotated about the horizontal axis at the rate of 30 rpm
for 5 hour
 The sample is then sieved through 1.5mm size sieve
 The percentage of wear is found as
Test of stones.

Acid test
This test is used used to determine the weather resistance of
the stone
Procedure :
 A stone sample is kept in the solution of sulphuric acid
(1%)
 If the stone have less weather resistance or have alkaline
content they turn rounded lose weight and particle
sdeposit on the surface
 These stones shall not be used in corrosive and smoky
environment
Test of stones.

Water
   absorption test
This test is used to determine the amount of water absorbed
by the stone
Procedure :
 A cube of about 0.5N is prepared let the actual weight be
W1 N
 The cube is placed in water for 24 hour
 It is then taken out and wiped and the weight is taken
again let it be W2
 The water absorption is given by

Test of stones.
Smith Test
This test is used to determine the frost resistance of the
aggregate
Procedure :
 The sample of stone is broken into pieces and immersed into
water
 The sample is then shaken vigorously , the dirty color of water
will indicate the amount of the impurities present in the stone
Freezing Thawing Test
Used to determine the Unsoundness of stone
Procedure :
 The specimen is immersed in water
 It is then freezed at -12 C for 24 hour
 It is then thawed at room temperature
 The cycle is repeated multiple time and the effect is observed
Sand
 Sand is a naturally occurring material composed of finely divided
rock and mineral particles
 The most common constituent of sand is silica in the form of quartz

Types of sand
Sand is generally formed by the weathering of rocks , based on the
natural sources from which the sand is obtained sand is classified as
follows
Pit Sand
This is the sand obtained by forming pits in the ground soil
It is excavated from a depth of about 1-2m from the ground level
The sand is found as deposits in the soil and it consists of sharp ,
angular grains and are free from salts
It serves as an excellent material for making materials or concrete
Pit sand must be free from
Sand
Types of sand (Continued…)
River Sand
 This sand is widely used for all purposes. It is obtained from the
banks or beds of rivers and it consists of fine rounded grains.
 The presence of fine rounded grains is due to mutual attrition under
the action of water current.
 The river sand is available in clean conditions.
 The river sand is almost white in color.
SEA SAND
 This is obtained from sea shores. It is brown in color and it also has
the fine rounded grain.
 As it is obtained from sea it contains salt, which is used in attracting
moisture from atmosphere.
 Such absorption causes dampness and disintegration of work. It is
generally not used for engineering purpose due to its retards setting
action of cement. It is normally used for non structural purposes.
 PROPERTIES OF GOOD SAND
 It should be clean and coarse.
 It should be free from any organic or vegetable matter;
usually 3-4 per cent clay is permitted.
 It should be chemically inert.
 It should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.
 It should not contain salts which attract moisture from the
atmosphere.
 It should be well graded, i.e., it should contain particles of
various sizes in suitable proportions.
 It should be strong and durable. It should be clean and free
from coatings of clay and silt.
 Tests on sand
Clay Test
Quantitatively it can be ascertained by determining the
percentage loss in weight of a sample of sand after washing the
same with clean water and then sieving through #200 opening size.
Feld test can be performed by
(i) rubbing a small amount of sand between finger tips. If clay
spots are left on finger tips, it indicates the existence of clay in
the considerable amount. Test for silt and clay:
(ii) putting some quantity of sand in a glass of water. Then it is
vigorously shaken and allowed to settle. If the clay is present in
sand, its distinct layer is formed at the top of sand.

Test for organic impurity

• To detect the presence of organic impurities in sand, a solution of
sodium hydroxide or caustic soda is added to sand and stirred. If
the color of solution changes into brown, it shows presence of
impurities.
Binding Materials
Lime
 Lime is a rigid binding material and used as a construction
material form the old times and even toady it is used in many
direct and indirect engineering construction works. Some of
the main uses of lime are as follows
 In the form of matrix for concrete and mortar
 In the making of low cost buildings as joint material
 Employed in white washing and as a base coat for
distempering
 It is used for knotting of timber
 It is used as flux in the manufacture of steel
 It is used in the manufacture of cement
 It is used for the historical preservation of the anchient
monuments built by using the lime mortar
Manufacture of Lime

 Lime is manufactured by burning lime sources to redness

 During heating carbon oxide is driven off and non volatile
impurities such as oxides of silicon , magnesium , iron ,
manganese etc. are left behind

 Some of the main sources of lime are as follows

1. Limestone It is suitable when lime has to be extracted in large
amounts and of fairly good quality
2. Kankar : Kankar are Calcaerous deposits composed of lime and
alumina and thus yields fair quality of hydraulic lime when heated
3. Shell of sea animals : These are the purest sources of lime and are
used for making best quality fat lime
Process of Manufacture of Lime

The process of manufacture of lime involves the following

steps
1. Collection of raw materials
 The required quantity of lime of the desired quality is stacked
in the site (it can also be regularly transported)
 Generally pure limestone having impurity less than 5% is used
for manufacture of fat lime and Kankar is used for the
manufacture of Hydraulic lime
 Fuel Required for the burning of limestone is also collected
the fuel commonly used are wood coal coke charcoal etc.
2. Burning of Raw materials
 The raw materials are now burnt in the kiln powered by coal
or firewood some of the common kilns are
 Process of Manufacture of Lime

Burning of Lime (Continued)

(i) Clamp burning :

• This is a traditional method and used only when the quantity of
limestone and fuel is abundant and the required amount of limestone
is less
• In this method clamp is formed by arranging limestone and fuel in
alternative layers the height of clamp is not more than 3 meter
• The clamp is covered by mud and dung in order to prevent the escape
of heat
• A fire place is kept at the bottom for burning
Disadvantages :
 The final product contains high percentage of under burnt and over
burnt lime
 It is highly uneconomical as heat escapes as the mud plaster as it
cracks due to heating
 Lime is contaminated due to fuel and mud contact
 This process cannot be conducted during the rainy seasons
Process of Manufacture of Lime
Burning of Lime (Continued)
(ii) Kiln Burning
Kilns are of two types
a. Intermittent Kiln
 This is generally constructed in the hills or in rivers as shown in the
figure , an arch is provided as shown the limestone is stacked over
the arch and fuel is burnt under the arch
 Here the limestone does not come in contact with the and outturn is
least associated with the impurities.
 Each charge requires 2 days to burn and 1 day to cool therefore this
process is intermittent in nature
Process of Manufacture of Lime
b. Continuous Kiln
 This kind of kiln is used when lime is to be
manufactures in large scale
 This kiln is vertical structure and is made
up of fireclay bricks and built on a slope to
facilitate continuous removal of lime
 Coal is heated in separate chambers (4 in
number provided in periphery) and hot air
is passed to the kiln as shown in the figure
 Air also enters form the opening from
which the lime is removed so as to cool
the lime
 Limestone is continuously fed from the top
and lime is withdrawn from the bottom
 Lime obtained from this process is purest
as it does not come in contact with any
impurities except those that are present in
the limestone itself
 Process of Manufacture of Lime
Burning of Lime (Continued)

Precuations
 Limestone shall be broken into small pieces before burning
 Quality of fuel shall be carefully checked
 Limestones shall be gradually heated
 Completion of burning is observed by deep red flame
 Over burning shall be avoided
Process of Manufacture of Lime

3. Slaking of burnt lime

 It is the process of converting the quick lime formed into the
slacked lime. It is an important process in rendering lime
suitable for use and great care shall be taken to ensure
proper slaking and shall be done within one week of the
burning of lime. The objects of slaking are
(i) To ensure soundness i.e. to ensure volumetric stability
(ii) To ensure plasticity
The common methods of slaking are as follows

A. Air Slaking
 Lime is broken into pieces and is spread over a non porous
platform , it absorbs moisture from the air and slakes slowly
into a powdered form
 This method is unsuitable since complete slaking is not
obtained
Process of Manufacture of Lime

3. Slaking of burnt lime(Continued…)

B. Basket Slaking
 Lime is broken into pieces of size less than 50mm and filled in
a basket
 The basket is then immersed in clean water for a few seconds it
is then taken out and thrown in a pakka platform and lime
slowly slakes into a powdery form
 This method is unsuitable since complete slaking is not obtained
C. Platform Slaking
 This method is usually carried out in clean dry masonry platform
 The lime is spread into the platform and water is added slowly
in such a rate that the powder form is retained
 During adding of water the lime is continuously turned
 The lime is then sieved through sieve size of 1/3cm to remove
unburnt lumps
 The lime is used in the preparation of mortar
Process of Manufacture of Lime

3. Slaking of burnt lime(Continued…)

D. Tank Slaking
 This method is used when lime is required in the form of paste
also known as putty. Large vessels or tanks are needed for
this process
 Generally two tanks are used One is built above the ground and
the other is built underground
 Lime is added to the tank above ground and water is added till
the tank (45 cm in depth) is half filled and then the mixture is
stirred till the temperature is reached between 85 to 90 C
 After this the process of adding water and stirring is done
maintaining the temperature till rise of temperature ceases
 The orifice of the upper tank is now opened and lime is
allowed tot pass to the second tanker through a sieve of 1/3cm
size in which the impurities are collected
 The Mixture is then dried into the lower tank by absorption and
by evaporation forming slaked lime
Types of Lime

1. Fat lime
 Rich lime high calcium lime
 Volume increase by 2.5 times on slacking
 Purest lime > 95% lime
 Made by burning pure limestone, animal shells.
 Used for white washing plastering.

2. Hydraulic lime:-
 Contains greater than 5% impurity in the form of clay which
imparts hydraulicity i.e. property to dry below water.
 With increase in amount of clay the time for setting under
water is reduced while slaking. Tine increase based on clay
content hydraulic lime is of 3 types
Types of Lime

Types of Hydraulic Lime

Feebly hydraulic Moderately hydraulic Eminently hydraulic

Clay 5-10% Clay 11-20% Clay 21-30%

21 days even 1 month for 24 hours for drying under

7 das for drying under water
drying under water water

5-10 min for slacking 2 hrs. for slaking 5. hrs. for slakin

3. Poor lime :
 Contains more than 5% impurity low quality not used for
engineering work.
Setting of lime

It is  the
 process of solidification of lime mortar or concrete it can
be through
1. Carbonation: Hardening occurs due to absorption of involves
carbon involves
 Dehydration
Ca(OH)2 CaO +H2O
 Carbonation
CaO+CO2 CaCO3

2. Hydrolysis: Occurs due to Ca(OH)2­being altered by the action

of silica occurs in the presence of alumina
Binding Materials
Cement
 Cement is a rigid binding material with adhesive and cohesive
properties which makes it capable of bonding mineral
fragment into compact whole
 Cement is one of the most used construction material some of
the uses are as follows
 Mortar for masonry , plastering , pointing
 Making joints for pipes drains etc.
 Used in all types of concrete constructions
 Used to make precast pipes, poles, fences etc.
Manufacture of Cement

Raw materials
 Cement is manufactured by mixing together and burning the
mixture of calcareous and argillaceous material in standard
composition which is as follows
 Lime (CaO) 60-66%
 Silica(SiO2) 18-25%
 Alumina(Al2O3) 3-8%
 Iron oxide(Fe2O3) 1-5%
 Magnesia(MgO) 1-4%
 Calcium sulphase (CaSO4) 3-5%
 Suphur (SO3) 1-2%
 Alkali 1-2%
 Lime:-
 Most important compound
 Reacts with other compounds to form constituents which are responsible
for setting and hardening
 Excess makes cement unsound and causes it to expand and disintegrate.
 Deficit makes cement weak and sets quickly

 Silica:-
 Reacts with lime to form tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate
responsible for setting and hardening.
 The excess of it increases the strength but prolongs the setting time.
 
 Alumina:-
 Reacts with lime to form tricalcium aluminate . which is responsible for
setting
 It acts as flux and lowers the clinkering temperature
 excess causes flash set.
 
 Iron oxide:-
 Imparts color and hardness excess causes cement to be weak
 
 Magnesium oxide :-
 Imparts hardness ,color and soundness excess makes cement
unsound

 Sulphur Trioxide :-
 makes cement sound. Excess makes cement unsound.
 
 Alkalies:-
 Causes problem like effloresces alkali- aggregate reaction etc.
 
 Calcium Sulphate :-
 Gypsum, added after burning to control (increase setting time)
Manufacture of Cement

Process of Manufacture
 There are two processes of manufacture of cement

A. Wet Process
 In this process the mixture used is wet in nature i.e. contains 35-50 % of
moisture. This process is preffered if the calcaerous material is chalk
 The Different Steps of this process are
(i) Collection of Raw Materials
 Calcaerous materials such as limestone marl chalk etc. are quarried by
blasting argillaceous materials like clay slate etc. are transported to
the site by proper transportation
(ii) Crushing grinding and mixing :
 When chalk is used it is finely broken up and dispersed in water in wash
mills(wash mills are circular tanks with radial raking arms which breaks
up the lumps and keep the solution in suspension)
 clay is also broken down and mixed with water , in a similar way.
 The mixture is now mixed in predetermined proportion and then passed
through a screen before keeping it into a storage tank
Manufacture of Cement

Process of Manufacture
(ii) Crushing grinding and mixing(Contd….) :
 When Limestone is used , It is first crushed in balls mils and
then grinded into tube mills in a dispersion stage , the clay is
also subjected to similar treatment and then they are mixed
together and stored in a storage tank.

 The mixture stores in the storage silo(mixture silo) is kept in

suspension through air blast or through raking arms
 The slurry is then passed into the correction silo where final
corrections are made and the mixture becomes ready for
burning
Manufacture of Cement

Process of Manufacture
(iii) Burning :
 The slurry is now burnt in the rotary kiln , a rotary kiln is a
refractory lined cylinder 4m in dia and upto 150m long
 The slurry is pumped from the upper end of the rotary kiln and the
air blast is send through the lower end using coal(Oil and natural
gas can also be used instead of coal)
 As the slurry moves dowh the kiln , it encounters higher temperatures
 First the water is evaporated
 Then the CO2 is liberated
 Then all the materials are converted into liquid and fuse together to
form the clinker

(iv) Grinding , Weighing and Packaging :

 The Clinker is now finely grinded 3 to 4% og gypsum is added to
prevent flash setting of cement
 It is then sieved through Sieve No 9 and then weighed , packed and
send to market for sale
Manufacture of Cement

B. Dry Process
 In this process the mixture used is dry in nature i.e. contains
only 12-15 % of moisture. This process is preferred if the raw
materials are hard in nature
 The Different Steps of this process are
(i) Collection of Raw Materials
 Calcaerous materials such as limestone marl chalk etc. are
quarried by blasting argillaceous materials like clay slate etc.
are transported to the site by proper transportation
(ii) Crushing grinding and mixing :
 The raw materials are converted into finely grinded powder in
ball mills and tube mills , the mixture is stored into the
storage silo
 Mixture is the transferred to the blending silo where final
checking and adjusting is done.
 Mixture is then made uniform by using a blast of air
Manufacture of Cement

Process of Manufacture
(iii) Burning :
 The powder is now mixed with 12 – 15% of moisture and passed through a
sieve called the granulator where hard pallets of size 0.3 cm to 2.5cm are
formed
 The pallets are then passed into the rotary kiln
 From the upper end of the rotary kiln and the air blast is send through the
lower end using coal(Oil and natural gas can also be used instead of coal)
 As the pallets moves down the kiln , it encounters higher temperatures
 First the water is evaporated
 Then the CO2 is liberated
 Then all the materials are converted into liquid and fuse together to form the
clinker

(iv) Grinding , Weighing and Packaging :

 The Clinker is now finely grinded 3 to 4% og gypsum is added to prevent
flash setting of cement
 It is then sieved through Sieve No 9 and then weighed , packed and send
to market for sale
Bouge’s compounds
On burning raw materials they form clinker it is mainly composed
of a no of end products which are called bouge’s compound they
are as follows

Tricalcium Sillicate/Alite (C3S):-

 Develops early strength generates more heat
 Hydrated Rapidly
 Possesses less resistance to chemical attack

DIcalcium Sillicate/Bilite (C2S):-

 Generates less heat responsible for strength ultimate.
 Offers more resistance to chamical attack
 Hardens more slowly
Bouge’s compounds
On burning raw materials they form clinker it is mainly composed
of a no of end products which are called bouge’s compound they
are as follows
Tricalcium aluminate/Celite(C3A):-
 Reacts very rapidly
 Generates high heat of hydration
 Has greater tendency of volume change
 Responsible for initial setting\
 Less resistive to Sulphur attack

Tetra calcium alumino ferrate/Felite(C4AF):-

 less cement property
 Increases volume and reduces cost
 Comparatively Inactive
Setting and Hardening of Cement
Setting : Plastic to Solid
Initial Setting : Plastic to semi solid
Final Setting : Semi Solid to Solid

Hardening : Gain of strength

Initial Strength : Upto 28 Days Due to C3S
Final Strength : That which is gained afer 28 days Due to C2S
Ultimate Strength = Intial + Final Strength
Testing of Cement

1. Fineness test:-
 The degree of grinding is called. Fineness it is a measure of
cementing value. Finer the cement, stronger the mortar or
concrete it makes. Fineness can be tested through.
 Is sieve:- the residue left m Is sieve. No 9 shall be less than
10% for OPC and 5% for FHPC
 Air permeability method:- Air is blown through the sample to
measure the specific area of the cement
 Specific area = area per unit weight
 Shall be minimum of 2250 cm2/gm for OPC
3000 cm2/gm for RHPC
Testing of Cement
2. Consistency test:-
 This test is done to determine the amount of water required to
produce cement paste of desired quality
 In other words to determine the water content for optimum strength
 Done by vicat’s apparatus

Procedure
 Consistency is measured by using a Plunger/Needle of diameter 10
mm
 Different water contents are tested for penetration value
 The first trial is started with 300gm of cement and 90gm (30%) of water
 The plunger is then brough into contact with the surface of the paste
and it sets under its weight (Penetration is more for lowe
consistency)
 The water content corresponding to 30 to 35mm penetration is taken
as the optimum amount of water and is called normal consistency
 Normal Consistency is denoted by P
Testing of Cement
3. Setting Test :-
 Performed at 0.85P water
 Done by vicat’s apparatus and is of two types

(i) Initial Setting Test

 Initial setting is the time in which the cement changes from plastic
stage to semi solid stage
 Needle having 1 mm square area is used
 Cement paste is prepared at the standard water content and then is
allowed to set
 Penetration for the needle is noted slightly before the expected
initial setting time and is taken at an interval of 1minute
 The time corresponding to standard penetration of 30 to 38mm(In
many objective 30 to 35 so that also) is called Initial setting time
 The Initial setting time for OPC shall not be more than 30 min
Testing of Cement
(ii) Final Setting Test
 It is the time in which the cement changes to hardened stage
and gains sufficient strength
 Final setting test is conducted in Vicat's apparatus using
annular needle
 The cement paste is allowed to dry and test is started some
time before the anticipated final setting time of the sample
 The time in which the annular part does not form any imprint
but the needle still forms imprint is taken is final setting time
Testing of Cement
4. Compressive strength test
 This test is used to determine the strength of cement
 Test is done in cubes of Cement sand mortar
 Mortar is made in ratio of 1:3 and water content used is (P/4
+3) % (555 gm sand 185 gm of cement)
 7.06 cm side cube is used
 Cube is Dried in 90% humidity for 24 hour
 After drying the blocks are cured in water at room
temperature
 Few block are tested in 3 days while few are tested in 7 days
 Strength shall be minimum 115 kg/cm2 for 3 day and 175
kg/cm2 for 7 day.
Testing of Cement
4. Tensile strength:-
 It is used to determine the tensile strength cement
 Tensile strength is determined by pulling briquette of
standard size
 A 1:3 Cement sand mortar with water equal to 8% of the
weight of solids
 The mortar is kept in the mould for briquette and then dried
at 27+ 2 C for 24 hour and then cured
 Samples are broken by pulling the jaws of testing machine
 Minimum value 20 kg/cm2 and 25 kg/cm2 for 3 and 7 days
 Testing of Cement
5. Soundness test:-
 The property of cement to resist cracking on freezing or
thawing is called soundness
 Soundness tests check the materials for unsoundness present
and determines weather they are sound or not
 The Unsoundness of cement is due to
 Unreacted lime
 Unreacted magnesis
 The different types of tests are
Unsoundness due to uncombined lime
 Le - Chatelier’s apparatus
Unsoundness due to uncombined lime and magnesia
 Autoclave test
 Freezing thawing test
 Testing of Cement
Soundness test using Le – Chatelier’s Apparatus :-
 Le – Chatelier’s apaaratus consists of samall brass cylinder (30mm
dia 30 mm high and 0.5mm thick) having a split along its generatix
 Two indicators with pointed ends are provided at both the ends of
the split
Procedure
 The cement paste is prepared at 0.72P
 The cylinder is placed on an glass plate and small weight is placed
on the top
 The whole assembly is placed on water bath for 24 hour and at the
end of the period , the distance between the indicators is
measured
 The mould is then placed in water and boiled for about 30 minutes
and distance is measured again
 The final increase in the distance is a measure of the unsoundness
of the sample and shall not exceed 10mm
 If the sample fails then test is repeated with spread sample for 7
days the failure on which will cause the rejection of the sample
Storage of Cement
 Store cement in a building which is dry, leak proof and as moisture
proof as possible.
 There should be minimum number of windows in the storage
building.
 Stack the cement bags off the floor on wooden planks in such a
way, so that it is about 150 mm to 200 mm above the floor.
 The floor may comprise of lean cement concrete or two layers of
dry bricks laid on well consolidated earth.
 Maintain a space of 300 mm all-round between the exterior walls
and the stacks.(see figure below)
 Stack the cement bags close to each other to reduce circulation of
air.
 The height of stack should not be more than 10 bags to prevent the
possibility of lumping under pressure.
 The width of the stack should not be more than four bags length or
3 meters.
 Put label showing date of receipt of cement on each stack of
cement bags to know the age of cement. Use old cement first as
age of cement decreases with time as follows
 When it is required to store cement for a long period of time or
during the monsoon; completely enclose the stack by a water
proofing membrane such as polyethylene.
 Different types of cement must be stacked and stored separately.
Special Types of Cement
1. Rapid hardening Portland cement(RHPC):-
 It has greater strength in early stage as compared to OPC.
The high strength in early stage is due to extra amount of
lime. To further enhance this property fineness is increased.
 It produces same strength in 1 day as done by OPC in 3 day
the 3 day strength is equal to 7 day of OPC
 Used in Road construction not used in mass concrete.

2. High alumina cement

 Alumina is high
 Can resist high temperature
 Its initial setting time is more than the normal cement
(2.5hr) and final setting is less than the normal cement (5hr)
and therefore allows more time for mixing and working.
 It has highest early strength among all the cements
 It has excellent resistance against fire
 It is not affected by frost
 Used as refractory material in linings
 Develops highest early strength
 It is unsuitable for many cases like steam curing , in
sulphates infected soils etc.

3. Extra rapid hardening cement

 made by adding cal2<2% in RHPC.

4. Quick setting cement

 Obtained by adding Al2SO4 and CaCl2 with OPC in fine
powdered form
 The fineness is also increases
 Its initial setting is 5 minute and final setting is 30 minutes
 Used for underground construction purpose.
5. Portland pozzolana cement
 It is an integrated blend of cement and pozzolana.
Pozzolana is a natural or artificial material contain silica
and alumina in a reactive form e.g. Volcanic ash , pumice ,
opaline etc.
 Generally 25-30% of cement is added to OPC to make PPC .
 It has the following features
 Lower final strength
 Higher final strength
 Increased workability
 Reduction in chemical reaction with Sulphur
 Reduction in blending
 Increase curing time
6. Low heat cement
 It contains lower amount of C3S and C3A. The initial strength is lower
but final is some as that of OPC
 Uses:- Abutements, retaining wall, Dam

7. Sulphate resistance cement

 OPC is grinded with gypsum
 Resistant to sulphate attack
 Uses:- marine condition, sulphate infected soil.

8. Blast furnace slag cement

 It is made by grinding Portland cement along with ground granulated
blast furnace slag (maximum 65%)
 It has following features
 Low heat of hydration
 More resistance to attack by chemicals
 Chaper than ordinary Portland cement
 Used for mass concrete
 Expansive Cement
 It is produced by adding an expanding medium like sulpho-
aluminate and stabilizing agent to the ordinary cement.
 This cement instead of shrinking on drying expands
 This cement is used for the construction of water retaining
structure , frost resistant concrete and for repair of old
structures
Clay Product
Brick
 Brick is a clay product and is manufactured by burning clay
prepared in desired shape and size. It is one of the most used
building unit.

Manufacture of Bricks
Brick earth
 Clayey soil is used to make bricks
 The soil is derived from disintegration of igneous rocks ,
potash feldspar , orthoclase or microcline. These substances
decompose to form Kaolinite whose hydration leads to clay
called kaolin
 The good brick earth shall be such that it can be easily
molded and dried without cracking and warping
Brick
Composition Good brick earth
A good brick earth shall have the following composition
S = Silica (50-60%)
A = Alumina (20-30%)
L = Lime (10%)
I = Iron oxide (<7%)
M = Magnesia (<1%)
A = Alkali (<1%)
Brick
Functions of Constituents of Brick Earth
Functions of various ingredients of good brick earth are
 Silica :-
 main ingredient
 Helps retain shape imparts hardness and import durability
 Excess causes brick to be brittle & weak by degrading
cohesion
 This makes the brick weak which cracks under loading
 
 Alumina :-
 It is the principal constituent of the brick earth
 Renders the clay plastic
 Excess cause bricks to crack and warp during drying
 Lime :-
 Reduces shrinkage, causes silica to melt
 Excess causes brick to overmelt and
 Iron oxide :-
 Imports color, Reduce shrinkage
 Excess causes bricks to be dark blue
 
 Magnesia:-
Reduced warping
Excess makes the brick yellow
 Alkali:-
 Causes Efflorescence

The alkali present in the bricks dissolves in rain water thus forming
solution. When the surface of these bricks are exposed to heat , the
solution moves to the surface when it reaches the surface, then water
evaporates leaving behind all the salts which form whitish solution on the
surface. This effect is called efflorescence. It disturbs the aesthetic beauty
as well as the strength of the masonry work
 Manufacture of Brick
A. Preperation of Clay
1. Site Selection and Unsoiling :-
• The site selected for making the bricks shall have
suitable soil in required quantity
• A number of things have to be added externally to
the soil ot make it to required quantity the
availability of these materials shall also be ensured
• It is also necessary that water and fuel like coal and
coke are available in sufficient amount
2. Unsoiling
• Top soil upto a depth of 20 cm is removed. This is
done because the soil at the top is impure due to
environmental and other type of interactions like
wildlife etc.
3. Weathering
 Weathering is the process of exposing soil to open
environment it imparts plasticity to the soils and
increases the strength of soil. It is done as follows
 Soil is dug and formed Into lumps
 The earth is spread into a thickness of 600 – 1200 mm
 Earth is allowed to weather in open environment

4. Blending:-
 It is the process of mixing of appropriate
constituent in the brick earth to improve its quality
 All the necessary materials lime lime , sand , additives ,
etc. are added to the soil in this stage
 After addition of necessary ingridients the soil is then
mixed thoroughly to make it uniform
 5. Tempering /pugging :-
 It is the processes of kneading of appropriate
mixture of soil. Done in :

(i) By cattle feet :

 Earth is spread over a uniorm surface and kneaded ,
spreading of water is done uniformly till a
homogenous mixture is obtained

(ii) Pugg mill

 It contains an iron bucket in the form of a cylinder
 At the bottom a shaft is provided with a number of
horizontal arms furnished with knives.
 The shaft is rotated by means or power
 Clay and water in the required ratio are charged from
the top and tempered clay leaves from the bottom
B. Moulding
Moulding is the process of bringing brick to desired shape
moulding can be done by

(i) Mannual Moulding/Hand moulding :

 Done in well prepared ground or in table manuallly
 Hand moulding is done in moulds made of sal wood. Which
are slightly larger than the bricks
(ii) Machine Moulding :
 Done in molding machine
 More attractive and strong bricks are formed but the cost is more

C. Drying:-
It is the process of reduction in moisture before burning. It is done
in order to reduce the fuel requirement as well as to eliminate the
chances of warping during burning it can be done through
 
(i) Air Drying
(ii) Machine Drying
(i) Air Drying
 This is also known as natural drying
 The bricks are arranged in edges on a slightly raised
ground called hacks maintain a little space between each
brick for air circulation
 it shall be ensured that no sudden drying occurs in the
bricks and the bricks are protected from rain
 The air dried bricked are strong and of good quality and
give good performance when employed for construction
of simple structure

(ii) Machine Drying

This method is used when bricks are required in large
quantity and quickly. The bricks are arranged in stacks and
are dried in ovens(ii) Machine Drying
D. Burning of Bricks
It is the process of heating the bricks to high temperature in kilns.
Burning is done to
 Impart hardness and strength of bricks
 To increase density so that the bricks absorb less water

Burning can be done through

(i) Pajhwa burning :
Pajhwa is also called clamp or open kiln
 It is suitable for burning of grounded bricks and or lower quality
bricks in rural areas
 The clamps are formed in the form of heap with a 15 degree slope
for stability
 The bricks and fuel are arranged in layers alternatively the bricks
are arranged in edges and with space in between them to ensure
air flow
 The Heap is covered with mud and dung and fire is ignited
 It takes about 2-6 months for burning and cooling of bricks
 (i) Pajhwa burning(Continued) :

Advnatages
 Cheap and economical
 Cosiderable saving of fuel
 Bricks are tough and strong
 Skilled labour and supervision is not required
 Clamp cannot be damaged by winds or rains

Disadvantages
• Very slow
• Quality is not uniform
• The bricks are not of regular shape
• The bricks are liable to burn unevenly
(ii) Kiln Burning :-
A. Intermittent kiln
They are just like clamps but are permanent in nature and are
intermittent and slow is nature

B. Continuous Kiln
These kilns provide bricks in a more or less uninterrupted pattern they
are as follows

1. Bulls Trench kiln

 This type of kiln is oval is shape and is made by excavating trench in
the ground and making a wall of 2 brick thick
 The area of the kiln is divided into 8 to 10 compartments which are
used for continuous burning of bricks
 The kiln do not have a chimney and iron sheets are used to form the
roof , these sheets have holes to introduce fuel and are closed by
iron discs when fuel is not to be installed
 Chimneys are provided at the roof one on either side of the roof to
provide heat flow
B. Continuous Kiln
1. Bulls Trench kiln (Contd)
Working
 Every time 3 chambers are covered and contains three types
of bricks : the bricks to be cooled , the bricks to be burnt and
the bricks to be pre heated
 Once fire is started in the burning section , air flows from
brick to be colled to burning section to the preheating section
 After the burning is completed new section is added and
circulation is continued
Advantages
 Cost of fuel is less
 Supply of bricks is continuous
 High output
Working
 High initial cost constant supervision is required
B. Continuous Kiln
2. Hoffmans kiln
 The kiln is circular in plan , it contains a central chimney
surrounded by 12 number of compartment
 Each compartment has a door to communicate with outside and
proper arrangement for exchange og gasses to the chimney

Working
 Every day alternate compartments are loaded with the fresh
bricks and the adjacent one is emptied of emptied of burnt
bricks thus bricks are formed daily
Advantages
 Regular outturn
 High percentage of output
 Savings in time as bricks are preheated and cooled
 Economy of fuel
 Bricks are evenly burnt
Disadvantages
 High initial cost of construction
 Constant and skilled manpower and supervision
 It is not feasible of there is lack of regular consumption of
products
Qualities of Good Brick
Shape and Size
 A good brick should be uniform in size and shall have
uniform surface with well defined edges
color
 A good brick uniformly copper colored and free crakcks
and any other surface impurity
Structure
 A good brick shall have fine compact and uniform
structure
Hardness
 A good brick should be sufficiently hard and shall not be
scratched by fingernail
Porosity
 A good Brick shall be compact so that it does not absorb
too much water
Qualities of Good Brick
Strength
 A good brick should be sufficiently strong and shall not
crack under loading
Resistance to Fire
Resistance to efflorescence
Durability
 A good brick should not be damaged by the environment
 Classification of Bricks (Based on quality)
1st class bricks
 Well defined edges
 Surface even with uniform color dense
 Maximum water absorption is 15%(NS)
 Minimum compressive strength 10.5 N/mm2
2nd class brick
 Not well defined edges
 Surface with uniform color and rough dense
 Maximum water absorption 20% (NS) and 22% (IS)
 Minimum compressive strength 7.0 N/mm2(D.prasad)
Third class brick
 Not well defined edges
 Rough surface non uniform color
 Water absorption 25%
 Crushing strength 3.5 to 7 N/mm2
Jhama bricks
 No definite shape
 Brittle
 Crushing strength > 15 N/mm2
 Special Bricks

Fire Bricks
 Made from fire clay
 Can decrease heart flow
 Used in insulation , moderate furnace etc.
Refractory Bricks
 Restrict heat flow
 Special materials called the refractory materials are added to
clay to make the bricks refractory
 Based on the refractory material the bricks are of three types
 Acidic Refractory : Made by adding Silica
 Basic Refractory : Made by adding magnesite dolomite and
bauxite
 Neutral Refractory : Made by adding chrome magnesite etc.
Metals and alloys
Steel
 Steel is an alloy of carbon in which carbon content varies from
0.15 to 1.5%. It is a strong and durable material and has many
uses in engineering. Some of the main uses of steel are as
follows
 Structures
 Machine Parts and chambers
 Tools
 Fittings and sanitary works
 Utensils etc.
 Steel goes on becoming harder and tougher with theincrease in
its carbon contents upto 1.5 %
 (Up to a content of 1.5% all the carbon gets into chemical
combination with iron and none of its exist in free state. If
carbon contents increase beyond 1.5% then it doesn't
combine with iron and is present as free graphite.)
Manufacture of Steel

The Different methods of manufacture of steel are as follows

1. Cementation process
 In this method the steel is kept in alternate layers with
powdered charcoal in a furnace maintained at high
temperature.
 The steel is kept in the furnace for 5 to 15 days depending on
the requirement of the steel.
 At the end of this process steel is formed with blisters due to
contamination with carbon and the steel formed is called
blister steel.
 The steel surface is full of fissures and cavities and also is non
homogenous therefore it can be employed for machine parts
but less suitable for tools
Manufacture of Steel

The Different methods of manufacture of steel are as follows

2. Crucible process
 It is the oldest process of steel manufacture
 Originally in this process wrought iron was heated along with
molten pig iron in a clay vessel called crucible (or any other
carbon rich metal) and steel was formed
 Nowadays Blister steel along with pig iron is used to form steel
 The steel produced is known as cast steel
 It is of high quality but the process is costly therefore , this
steel is used to make finest cutlery and hardest tools
Manufacture of Steel

The Different methods of manufacture of steel are as follows

3. Bessemer process
 This process utilizes a pear shaped vessel called the Bessemer
converter made of refractory bricks and lined with a flux to form
the steel
 The converter is provided with hollow pipes at the bottom called
tuyers through which air is blown to form steel. These pipes are
frequently corroded so have to be replaced every 15/20 minutes
 To form the steel the converter is rotated about the horizontal
axis to horizontal position and charge is fed
 The converter is then ignited and air is send through molten
metal
 All the impurities are oxidized , some leave as gas while some
form slag steel is formed at the end of the process
 If pig iron other then Bessemer pig is used then the
conversion is further aided by the lining of furnace.
 Clay lining is used for little phosphorus called acid
Bessemer process.
 Dolomite or magnesite is used for high phosphorus called
alkaline Bessemer process.

 Advantages : Cost, time

 Disadvantages : Weldability , durability , cold brittleness
etc.
Manufacture of Steel

The Different methods of manufacture of steel are as follows

4. Open hearth Process

 Steel is manufactured in open hearth furnace. Unlike Bessemer
the process does not involve completed decarbonization and
can be stopped when required.
 The hearth is provided with heat from number of gas chambers
as shown in the figure , the chambers are used in rotation , the
hearth is provided with pig iron scrap iron and steel
 Due to consistent heating the impurities are removed from the
iron also the carbon gets combined into the structure whereby
steel is formed

 Advantages : Scrap is used , high carbon steel is possible

 Disadvantages : Limited to low phosphorus raw materials
Air Circulation Process
Classification of steel

Plain carbon steel

 Dead steel (c<0.15%)
 Mild steel (0.15- 0.3%) Boiler plates , general
engineering purposes ,
motors etc.

 Medium carbon steel (0.3-0.8 %) Rails , tuebines , gun pipes ,

gears

 High carbon steel (0.8 -1.5%) Hammer , chisel , other tools ,

crusher etc.
Classification of steel
Alloy steel
 Silicon steel : Silicon improves the electrical properties of steel , and also
imparts fatigue strength and corrosion resistance to steel
Uses : For electrical lining and parts

 High speed tool steel : Made be adding tungsten chromium and vanadium.
These steels are hear and wear resistant and are used to cut and drill
through metals i.e. into tools like drills cutters

 Heat resistant steel :- Made be adding silicon aluminum and chromium

these are bale to resist very huge amounts of steel and are use in the
manufacture of furnace
 Spring steel :- Made be adding manganese and are used to form Spring
 Chrome vanadium steel : Has great strength against corrosion wwar
and fatigue and are use in the manufacture of airplane
 Nickel steel : Measuring tape
 Vanadium steel : Spring, shafts, Axle
 Stainless steel : Utensils
 Invar steel: Staff
Miscellaneous Materials
Paint
Composition of paint
(a)Base:
 Main components which forms the protective covering made from
metal oxides like red lead, white lead etc.
(b)Vehicle: -
 Medium which supports base and allows it to spread uniformly.
Lineseed oil (mostly used ) tung oil , Nut oil etc are used as
vehicle
(c) Coloring pigment
 Imparts color
 White = zinc white
 Blue = Cobalt blue
 Green = Chrome green
 Yellow = chrome yellow
 Brown = umber
 (d) Thinner :
 Volatile substance which makes paint thin and applicable,
mostly used thinner is turpentine. Other ones are naptha ,

(e) Drier :-
 Helps to mix together elements Dries rapidly to make paint
hand.

(f) Filler :-
 Increase volume makes paint durable

(g) Extender :- Used for easy spreading

Types of paint
Oil paints
 Linseed oil as vehicle
 Turpentine as thinner
 Pigment
 Some spirit added to increase shinning

Aluminum paint
 Made by dissolving aluminum power in spirit or varnishing
 Resistant to wear ,fire resistant
 Uses: Pipe radiator

Asbestos paint
 made by adding asbestos
 fiber in vehicle and thinner
 extremely resistant to fire hence called fire resistant point
 Uses: DPC, Leaked roof, Combusting chamber
Cellulose paint:
 Made by dissolving cellulose in oil. Used in airplane

Cement Paint:
 Made by adding suitable pigment (5-10%) to white cement

Emulsion paint :
 Pigment is in emulsion in a carrier used for protective surface
Enamel Paint :
 Made by adding white lead, zinc white in oil or spirit thinner along with
resinous substance. It is acid resistant and less affected by cold water.

Graphite paint:
 Made by dissolving graphite in oil used for sea structure.

Distemper :
 Powdered chalk + pigment
 Comes in power / paste to which water is added
Varnish:-

 Liquid made by dissolving resin in spirit or oil use for giving

finish to wood.
 Natural Resin: - Shellac, Copal, Rosin
 Artificial Resin:- Phenyl resin, Butyl resin

 Oil Varnish :-
 Most protective used in external conditions
 Spirit Varnish:-
 Most attractive used for decorative purpose
 Also called French polish/Lacquer
 Turpentine varnish :-
 Resistant to dampness Used in moist condition
Timber
Cross Section of a typical hard wood trunk
Pith :- Innermost core of tree
Heart wood :- Dark colored wood surrounding
The pith :- Dead and in active hence does not have part in growth
Sapwood:- Part between heartwood and cambium active part and
takes place in growth. Adds a ring at end of each winter called
angular ring.
Cambium :- Layers of fresh sap which is not yet converted to sap
Bark :- outermost covering
Medullary rays :- Rays extending from pith to periphery
Seasoning of timber
Timber contains about 100% (even 250%) moisture as compared to dry
weight.
In seasoning moisture is removed to make timber strong and attack
resistance
It can be done by
Natural seasoning
 Air seasoning: Wood is arranged in suitably spaced stacks and
allowed to dry normally 60-80 days.
 Water seasoning: logs are submerged in a stream with wider
end toward flow. After some time sap is washed out and
normal drying can take place quickly. (Air seasoning)
Artificial seasoning : ( Natural को जती strength आउदैन )
 Kiln seasoning : stacks are dried in kiln
 Chemical seasoning: wood is immersed in a solution of
Na2+No3, Na2so4 urea and then taken out and dried.
 Electrical seasoning: electricity is passed in the logs. Costly
not used in overall.
Polymers and Polymerization:
Polymerization
The combination of small molecule to form a large molecule is called
polymerization and the molecule is called polymer. 

De Polymerization:-
The process of degradation of polymer by breaking intermolecular bond.

Types of polymerization

Addition Polymerization:- When a molecules combine to form a chain

having the exact form then it is called polymerization.
e.g.: polythene, polyethylene etc.

Co-Polymerization :- It is polymerization of two or more different

molecule to form the polymer eg: styrene, butadiene , polymer.

Condensation polymerization:- Reaction leading to the formation of

polymer molecule with elimination of HCl,H 2O etc.
Plastic:
Organic polymer that can be produced in desired shape and
size It is of two types

Thermoplastic:
Soften on heating and solidity on cooling can be remanded
e.g. Polythene , polystyrene

Thermosetting Plastic:
Does not soften on heating
Once mounded is set to permanent form
Brittle in nature
e.g.: Bakelite, Polyester plastic, Epoxy resin.
 Binding Materials
Bitumen
 It is viscous liquid material in liquid or solid Stage having adhesive properties
consisting essentially of hydrocarbons
 Derived naturally or by the the fractional distillation of the crude oil
 Bitumen is classified as follows
A. Natural Bitumen : They are found naturally in asphalt form
A.1 Native lake asphalt
Found in dispersions of earth accumulated by the action of springs
They are almost pure or nearly pure in nature
A.2 Natural Rock Asphalt
They are associated with large proportions of mineral matter
They are found embedded in deposits of sandstone and

B. Artificial Bitumen
It is obtained by the fractional distillation at petroleum refinery plant
It is also called straight run bitumen,refinery bitumen etc.
 Artificial Bitumens are classified as follows

 A) Cutback Bitumen
 They are bitumen whose viscosity is reduce by the addition of
volatile substances like gasoline kerosene etc to decrease the
boiling point
 It is used when there is need of fluid binder which can sprayed at
low temperature
 It is used for surface dressing , soil stabilization ,Bitumen
Macadam
 Substitute of heating
 Suitable for direct application
 Good mixing
 Provides grater haul i.e. Transporting time
 Types Of cutback
Slow curing :- It is obtained by blending bitumen with high binding
(low volatile) liquids
 They are used in fine cold asphalt palliative materials

Medium curing :- It is obtained by blending bitumen with medium

volatile liquids such as kerosene
 They are used in Dense grade roads surfacing and in soil
stabilization

Rapid curing :- It is obtained by blending bitumen with highly

volatile such as naphtha
 They are used in Dense grade roads when semisolid binding
medium is required
 B) Bitumen emulsions

 Emulsion is relatively stable dispersion of one liquid,

minutely sub-divided into another liquid which are not
soluble into each other
 InBituminous emulsion bitumen is the disperse phase and
water is the continuous phase
 Stability
of emulsion is obtained by mixing an emulsifying
agent contained in aqueous phase
 Bitumen particles can be charges positively or negatively
according to the type of emulsifier
 Emulsion having negatively charged bitumen are called
anionic emulsion and those having positively charged
bitumen are called cationic emulsion
 Emulsifierfor anionic emulsion=Fully acidic derived from
wood by reacting with sodium or potassium hydroxide
 Emulsifierfor cationic emulsion=amine salts made by
reacting amine with hydrochloric or acetic acid
 Bituminous emulsion are of following type

Slow Setting :
 It does not break down easily in contact with stone aggregate
 It is suitable for fine aggregates coating and for soil
stabilization

Medium Setting :
It breaks with medium speed. It is used in premixing with coarse
aggregates for retreating with old road surface

Rapid setting:
 Break rapidly in contact with aggregates and used in surface
dressing and penetration macadam
Tar
 Tar is a viscous material made by destructive distillation of
materials like wood coal etc in the absence of air
 Based on the material from which the tar is obtained it is
classified as Wood tar and Coal tar

The Production of tar can be classified as follows

 i) Carbonization of coal to produce crude tar
 ii) Refining or distillation of crude tar
 iii) Blending of distillation residue with distillate oil
fraction to give the desired road tar
 Tar is divided into five groups as follows
 RT – 1 has low viscosity and used for surface painting
at cold regions
 RT – 2 for standard surface painting
 RT – 3 for surface painting and premixing chips for top
courses
 RT – 4 premixing macadam in base courses
 RT – 5 Used for grouting as it has highest viscocity
among road tars
 5.5. Tests on bitumen:
 Penetration test:
 Itis a measure of the hardness or
consistency of the bitumen
 Itus the vertical distance traversed or
penetrated by a standard needle for 5
seconds under standard temperature
conditions
 The value is obtained is called the
penetration value and is used for the
selection of the bitumen for the road
work
 Apparatus
 Needle assembly of total weight 100gm and device for releasing
and locking he needle
 A graduated dial gauge for reading the penetration upto the value
of 0.1mm
 Thermometer of range 0 c to 44c of accuracy 0f 0.2C
 Procedure:
 Heat the bitumen to softening point and pour it into the cylindrical
can unto a depth 15mm grater than the expected penetration value.
 Place sample container at a temperature of 25c for an hour
 After 1 hour take the sample out and bring the needle in contact
with the bitumen surface
 Set reading of dial gauge to zero
 Press the release button for 5 seconds and read the final dial gauge
reading this gives the penetration value
 Generally penetration is given in ranges for eg a 80/100 bitumen
will indicate that the penetration is between 80mm to 100mm
 The Grading is used to access suitably for climatic conditions
 For bituminous and penetration macadam IRC Suggests 60/70 and
80/100 mm for warmer and 180/200 for colder regions
 Ductility Test
 The pavement forms a thin film around the aggregate ,
which as a result of which ductility is impaired to the
pavement
 In flexible pavement it is necessary that the pavements is
flexible enough in another word the bitumen shall be elastic
 The flexibility is measured by observing the Elasticity
property of bitumen which is measured by the ductility test
 The ductility of a specimen is measured in terms of the
length upto which bitumen sample made into a bracket can
be stretched at a standard speed
 Apparatus
 Briquette of standard dimension
 Pulling device with distance meter
 Water bath arragement
 Procedure
 Heat the bitumen to liquid stage and pour in a briquette
assembly
 Allow the briquette to cool in air
 Cut the excess bitumen with a knife
 Keep the assembly in water bath at 27c for 85 to 95 min
 Remove the cover to the mould and set initial reading to
zero
 Apply strain at the rate of 50 mm/min
 The Distance at which the thread breaks is called the
ductility
 The ductility may range from 5 to 100 but for
satisfactory performance it should not be less than
50(Preferable 80 for cold regions)
 Viscosity Test
 Viscosity is the property by virtue of which the offers
resistance to flow, higher the viscosity slower will the
movement be
 Binder(Bitumen) shall spread uniformly all over the
aggregate Viscosity effect this tendency
 A highly viscous binder may not fill up the voids
completely while a low viscosity binder may not hold the
aggregate therefore viscosity of the bitumen shall lie
within suitable range for it to be used as road binder
 Viscosity is measured by the time taken by 50cc of the
bitumen to flow through a standard orifice at specified
temperature
 Apparatus
 Viscosity apparatus
having orifice of size
10mm
 Sample Collector
 Thermometer
 Procedure
 Pour the sample into the Apparatus
 Note the tie taken for 50cc of the material to flow through
it
 The time gives an indirect measure of the viscocity greater
the tie higher is the viscosity
 The Low viscosity bitumen can be used in cold weather
 High viscosity shall be used in hot places and if used in
cold places shall be heated
 Float test
 For consistencies in which penetration test cannot be
performed float test is applied
 The apparatus contains a float with a central hole
 The hole is filled with bitumen ,the float is kept in water and
temperature is slowly increased
 Time required for float to sink is measured this goves the
measure of hardness of bitumen
 Softening point test
 The bitumen used for road application shall be heated
well before its application tll it gets soft the softening
point s determined to know the temperature upto which
the bitumen shall be heated so that it attains sufficiently
fluidity
 Softening point Test Of aggregate
 It is the temperature at which the bitumen turns from
hard to soft state
 It is the temperature at which standard ball penetrate the
bitumen sample and falls through a height of 2.5cm when
heated in glycerin under standard rate
 Apparatus
 Brass ring , steel ball , holding arrangement
 Procedure
 Put heated bitumen in the brass ring
 Place it into the holder
 Place the ball into the ring and heat @ 5c/min
 Note the temperature at which the ball just touches
the lower ball i.e. falls through 2.5cm heght
 Flash and Fire Point Test
 Flash pipe is the lowest temperature at which the
application of test flame causes the vapors from the
materials to catch fire momentarily
 Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the
application of test flame causes the material to
ignite and burn continuously
 At high temperature there is a chance of fire hazard
therefore flash and fire point test are used to
determine the temperature at which the material
can be safely used
 Procedure
(i) Fill the material in cup , place the lid, close
(ii) Fit the thermometer
(iii) heat bitumen and increase temperature @ 5 deg per minute
(iv) At the anticipated flash point bring the flame near and heat @ 1Deg
per minute
(v) At a moment application of flame causes a bright flash inside this is the
flash point
(vi) Similarly the moment at which application of flame causes the sample
to burn is called fire point
 Solubility Test
 Pure bitumen is completely soluble in solvents like
carbon disulphate , carbon tetrachloride etc. Any
impurities present thus can be detected by dissolving
bitumen into any of the two solvents
 Procedure
 The sample is disolved in carbon disulphate